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arci^aeological  Unjjtitute  of  amevica 


PAPERS 

OF   THE 

School  of  American 
Archaeology 

i^umljer  fourteen 


An  Inroductory  Paper  on  the  Tiwa.  Language, 
Dialect  of  Taos,  New  Mexico 


BY 

JOHN    P.  HARRINGTON 


1910 


'>|{(    |;AK'(.Kn  1    I  IDUAUY 

[Reprinted   from  the  American  Anthropologist,  Vol.  12,  No.  i,  Jan. -Mar.,  1910.] 


AN    INTRODUCTORY    PAPER   ON   THE   TIWA   LAN- 
GUAGE,   DIALECT   OF   TAOS,    NEW    MEXICO' 

By  JOHN  P.   HARRINGTON 

n 

NO  fact  better  illustrates  the  present  fragmentary  condition  of 
our  knowledge  of  American  aboriginal  languages  than  that 
the  tongues  of  the  Pueblo  Indians  of  the  southwestern 
United  States  have  until  now  remained  uninvestigated.  Powell  in  his 
Indian  Linguistic  Families  of  America,  published  in  189 1,"  is  forced 
to  base  the  classification  of  these  languages  on  a  few  manuscript 
vocabularies  collected  in  a  haphazard  manner  by  various  persons  at 
various  times.  These  vocabularies  are  at  present  deposited  in  the  ar- 
chives of  the  Bureau  of  American  Ethnology  at  Washington.  The 
unreliable  character  of  these  records  and  of  any  classification  based 
on  them  is  best  appreciated  by  one  who,  like  the  writer,  has  had 
opportunity  to  compare  them  directly  with  the  spoken  languages. 
More  recently  a  few  Pueblo  texts  have  been  published.  We  possess 
a  specimen  of  the  language  of  Isleta  pueblo  recorded  by  Gatschet,' 
a  rendering  of  some  Christian  hymns  and  doctrines  in  the  Laguna 
language  by  the  missionaries  Bercovitz  and  Paisano,*  and  a  record 
of  several  Zuni  songs  made  by  Mrs.  Stevenson.'* 

No  study  of  the  phonetics  or  structureof  any  of  the  Pueblo  lan- 
guages was  however  attempted,  as  far  as  we  know,  previous  to  the 
investigations  which  have  been  conducted  during  the  past  two  years 
by  the  School  of  American  Archaeology  under  the  Archaeological 


'  Presented  at  the  Boston  meetin    of  the  American  Association  for  the  Advancement 
of  Science,  December,  1909. 

'Powell,  Indian  Linguistic  Families  of  America  North  of  Mexico,  ///;  Jttn.  ' Rep.. 
B.  A.  £.,  Washington,  1891. 

'  Gatschet,   A  Mythic  Tale  of  the  Isleta  Indians,  New  Mexico,  Proc.  Am.  Philos. 
Soc,  Dec,  iSgr,  pp.  208-218. 

*Bercovitz  [and  PaisanoT,  Hymn  Book  and  Appendix  in  the  Laguna  Indian  Language,. 
Laguna,  New  Mexico. 

'Stevenson,  The  Zuni  Indians,  2jrd  Ann.  Pep.,  B.  A.  E.,   Washington,  1904,  pp. 
68-72,  73-88,  156,  486,  583. 

II 


ii  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

Institute  of  America.  Under  the  auspices  of  tWs  School  the  author 
of  the  present  paper  has  since  July,  1908,  been  engaged  continuously 
in  a  study  of  the  group  of  obviously  related  languages  spoken  in 
the  Rio  Grande  drainage  area  of  New  Mexico  which  Powell  has 
termed  the  Tanoan.' 

The  Tanoan  Languages  and  Taos  Pueblo 

In  the  area  drained  by  the  Rio  Grande  which  is  now  known  as 
northern  and  central  New  Mexico  there  are  at  present  eighteen 
Indian  Pueblos.  We  follow  the  Indian  custom  in  enumerating  these 
villages,  beginning  with  those  farthest  north  or  northwest :  Taos, 
Picuris,  San  Juan,  Santa  Clara,  San  Ildefonso,  Nambe,  Pojoaque, 
Tesuque,  Cochiti,  Santo  Domingo,  San  Felipe,  Jemez,  Sia,  Santa 
Ana,  Sandia,  Isleta,  Laguna,  Acoma.  In  addition  to  these  should 
be  mentioned  Pecos  pueblo,  located  on  the  Rio  Pecos  and  aban- 
doned in  1837.  There  are  at  Jemez  a  few  aged  persons  who  still 
retain  a  knowledge  of  the  dialect  of  Pecos.  Four  villages  whose 
inhabitants  migrated  from  this  area  in  historic  times  should  also  be 
included  here.  These  are  :  Senecu,  Isleta  del  Sur,  and  Socorro, 
established  at  the  time  of  the  Pueblo  Indian  revolt  of  1680  south  of 
the  present  city  of  El  Paso,  Texas,  and  Hano,  founded  in  1700 
beside  the  Hopi  villages  of  northeastern  Arizona. 

The  speech  of  each  pueblo  is  practically  a  unit,  variations  pre- 
sented by  division,  clan,  family,  or  individual  being  here  ignored  ; 
but  no  two  of  the  pueblos  have  the  same  dialect,  although  the  de- 
gree of  linguistic  diversity  varies  greatly. 

Omitting  Cochiti,  Santo  Domingo,  San  Felipe,  Sia,  Santa  Ana, 
Laguna,  and  Acoma,  seven  villages  whose  language  forms  a  close 
unit  and  has  been  called  Keresan,  our  preliminary  survey  leads  us 
to  suggest  the  following  classification  of  the  dialects  of  the  remain- 
ing pueblos. 

A.  Tiwa  language : 

(1)  Taos  and  Picuris  dialects. 

(2)  Sandia,  Isleta,  and  Isleta  del  Sur  dialects. 


*  Pronounce  Tanoan  ;  adapted  from  Tano,  the  Mexicanized  form  of  a  Tewa  name 
applied  to  the  southern  Tewa  formerly  settled  about  and  south  of  the  present  Santa  Ft, 
New  Mexico. 


■\  IK     :   /  MU.JKY 

HARRINGTON]         T/IFA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF    TAOS  1 3 

(3)   Piro  dialect. 

B.  Towa  language  : 
(i)  Jemez  dialect. 
(2)  Pecos  dialect. 

C.  Tewa  language  : 

(i)  San  Juan,  Santa  Clara,  San  Ildefonso,  Nambe,  Pojoaque, 
Tesuque,  and  Hano  dialects. 

The  dialects  of  Sandia,  Isleta,  and  Isleta  del  Sur  have  for  three 
centuries  been  known  to  the  Mexican  population  of  the  region  by 
the  name  Tigua,  obscure  in  origin.  A  more  continental  spelling  is 
Tiwa.  The  term  Tigua  or  Tiwa  has  also  become  commonly  applied 
to  the  closely  related  idioms  of  Taos  and  Picuris.  In  a  recent 
paper,'  the  writer  suggested  that  the  use  of  this  name  be  extended 
still  more  widely  to  include  the  Piro  dialect.  Thus  all  the  dialects 
of  group  A  would  be  designated  as  Tiwa. 

It  was  also  suggested  that  the  dialects  of  group  B  be  known  as 
constituting  the  Towa  language,  since  the  term  tbwa,  meaning 
"  native,"  is  applied  by  the  Jemez  and  Pecos  to  their  own  language. 

The  language  of  group  C  with  its  numerous  village  dialects  is 
known  to  both  Indians  and  whites  as  Tewa,  this  being  the  word  in 
that  language  equivalent  to  Jemez  and  Pecos  towa  and  likewise 
meaning  "  native. " 

Thus  we  recognize  three  languages,  Tiwa,  Towa,  and  Tewa. 
The  diagram  on  the  following  page  shows  the  relative  sizes  and 
positions  of  the  areas  occupied  by  these  three  languages  at  a  period 
soon  after  the  coming  of  the  whites. 

Roughly  speaking,  the  languages  still  obtain  in  the  areas  in 
which  they  were  then  spoken,  the  Piro  dialect  of  Tiwa  forming  a 
notable  exception.  Piro  was  formerly  spoken  in  the  country  im- 
mediately south  of  that  held  by  the  ancestors  of  the  Sandia  and 
Isleta.  During  the  eighteenth  and  nineteenth  centuries  the  dialect 
was  heard  only  in  the  neighborhood  of  El  Paso,  and  is  probably 
now  extinct. 

The  population  of  Taos  like  that  of  the  other  pueblos  is  com- 
posite in   origin.      Tradition  states    that  long  ago  a   number    of 

1  Harrington,  Notes  on  the  Piro  Language,  American  Anthropologist,  Oct.-Dec, 
1909,  pp.  563-594. 


u 


AMERICAN  ANTHR0P0L0GIS7 


[N.  S.,    12,    1910 


clans  speaking  various  languages  confederated  to  form  the  Taos 
people,  and  that  this  people  throughout  its  subsequent  history  in 
times  of  war  and  peace  has  grown  by  adopting  individuals  or  groups 
of  individuals  speaking  alien  tongues.  Generations  ago,  it  is  said, 
very  many  Ute  Indians  were  incorporated  into  the  Taos  tribe  as  the 
result  of  a  war.     Probably  such  tradition  faithfully  reechoes  the 


DIAGRAM 

Showing  Tentative  Grouping 

of  the  Tongues 

of  theTanoan  Linguistic  Stock, 

Rio  Grande  Drainage, 

Nev/  Mexico, 

about  1600,  A.D. 


Ti\A/a  Landuaoe 
Towa  Language 
Tewa  Language 


prehistory  of  Taos.  It  is  certain  that  the  village  has  long  been  the 
melting  pot  of  peoples  and  that  these  peoples  spoke  various  lan- 
guages. The  conquering  and  surviving  tongue  is  Tiwa,  a  Tanoan 
language. 

Taos  Tiwa  exhibits  considerable  divergence  from  the  Sandia-Is- 
leta-Isleta  del  Sur  variety  of  the  language,  perhaps  indicating  long 
separation.  An  Isleta  man  who  recently  visited  Taos  preferred  to 
conduct  his  conversation  in  Mexican  jargon,  fluent  speech  in  the 
dialect  of  Taos  being  quite  unintelligible  to  him.     And  yet  com- 


HARRINGTON!         7IWA    LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS  1 5 

parative  study  reveals  the  closest  relationship  between  the  two  dia- 
lects. When  Taos  and  Picuris  people  talk  together,  Tiwa  is  used, 
these  two  dialects  differing  as  little  from  one  another  as  do  the  dia- 
lects of  the  Tewa  pueblos.  Piro  possibly  differed  as  widely  from 
each  of  the  other  subgroups  as  these  differed  from  each  other. 

A  comparative  study  of  the  three  languages  will  prove  most 
interesting.  Tiwa,  when  compared  with  the  adjacent  Tewa,  appears 
to  represent  both  phonetically  and  structurally  a  more  archaic  form 
of  Tanoan  speech.  In  fact,  the  relation  of  Tiwa  to  Tewa  seems 
not  unlike  that  which  Von  der  Gabelentz  would  have  us  believe 
Tibetan  bears  to  Chinese.  Final  consonants  still  retained  in  Tiwa, 
have  in  Tewa  decayed  or  disappeared.  Thus  Taos  nam-,  Tewa 
nd",  earth.  Diphthongs  prominent  in  Tiwa  appear  to  have  become 
in  Tewa  simple  vowel  sounds.  Thus  Taos  sMn-,  Tewa  sc^,  man. 
Open  vowels  in  Tiwa  are  generally  represented  in  Tewa  by  close 
vowels.  Thus  Taos  pa,  Tewa  po,  thigh.  The  tongue-raised 
vowels  of  Tiwa  exhibit  in  Tewa  less  raising  of  the  tongue.  Thus 
Taos  fo,  Tewa  fa,  to  live.  Many  formative  elements  which 
may  not  be  omitted  in  Tiwa  do  not  make  their  appearance  in  Tewa 
at  all.  Thus  Taos  ' a"  met  hfut,  Tewa  'tC  nid",  you  two  are  going  ; 
Taos  sM  na  na,  Tewa  se",  man.  A  Tiwa  sentence  when  translated 
into  Tewa  usually  contains  fewer  sounds  and  fewer  syllables  and 
requires  less  strenuous  motions  of  the  organs  of  speech. 

A  marked  musical  accent  has  developed  in  Tewa,  possibly  as  an 
accompaniment  of  some  of  the  monosyllabic  tendencies  described 
above.  This  accent  is  as  noticeable  and,  to  the  understanding  of 
many  words,  is  as  indispensible  as  are  the  "tones"  of  Chinese. 
For  example,  the  cognates  of  Taos  fa,  moon,  pld,  trail,  and  p'a, 
water,  are  respectively  Tewa  fo,  moon,  fo,  trail,  and  p'o,  water, 
distinguishable  by  their  musical  pitch  only.  The  vowels  of  the 
three  Tewa  words  seem  identical  in  quality,  length,  and  stress.  The 
difference  lies  in  the  musical  pitch,  which  in  p'o,  moon,  is  high  ;  in 
p'o,  trail,  is  lower ;  in  p'o,  river,  is  low  and  falling.  Such  pitch  ac- 
cents of  Tewa  words  are  difficult  for  the  foreign  ear  to  recognize  ; 
it  is  almost  impossible  for  adult  foreign  organs  to  correctly  repro- 
duce them.  Musical  accent  is  present  in  Tiwa,  as  it  is  in  all  lan- 
guages, but  is  not  noticeable  and  in  no  case  appears  essential  to  the 


l6  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

interpretation  of  a  word.  The  writer  knows  of  no  other  American 
language  in  which  features  salientiy  characteristic  of  Chinese  are 
developed  to  such  a  remarkable  extent  as  in  Tewa.  There  are 
many  tendencies  in  language,  and  those  which  result  in  monosyl- 
labism  are  as  yet  imperfectly  understood.  The  Tanoan  languages 
offer  a  promising  field  for  the  study  of  the  growth  of  these  tendencies. 

Among  various  other  developments  characteristic  of  Tewa 
which  have  not  been  discovered  in  the  other  Tanoan  languages, 
ablaut  deserves  mention  here.  Ablaut  appears  in  Tewa  noun  and 
adjective  elements.  Three  series  occur  :  u  —  c,  ti"  —  e',  a  —  i. 
The  u,  7/",  or  a  grade  indicates  large  objects ;  the  e,  e",  or  /  grade 
indicates  small  objects.  Examples  are  :  hu,  arroyo,  he,  arroyito ; 
mbu'',  big  bend,  mbe'^,  little  bend ;  p'agi,  large  and  flat,  figi,  small 
and  flat.  Prolonged  search  has  failed  to  reveal  any  similar  phe- 
nomenon either  in  Tiwa  or  Towa. 

The  German  linguist  Von  der  Gabelentz  mentions  an  invention 
of  ablaut  in  the  baby-talk  of  his  little  nephew  which  forms  a  strik- 
ing parallel  to  the  Tewa  usage.  This  child  expressed  itself  largely 
in  a  language  of  its  own  making.  Lakail  was  the  name  applied  to 
an  ordinary  chair,  hikull  meant  great  arm-chair,  likill  was  used  to 
signify  little  doll's  chair.  Again  mem  was  the  word  for  watch  or 
plate,  mum  referred  to  a  large  plate  or  a  round  table,  vtim  was 
the  name  for  the  moon,  while  mim-mhit-mim-mim  meant  stars.' 

The  Towa  language  of  Jemez  and  Pecos,  as  judged  by  some  of 
its  developments,  appears  to  hold  a  position  intermediate  between 
Tiwa  and  Tewa. 

Inasmuch  as  Tiwa  is  apparently  the  most  archaic  of  the  Tanoan 
group  as  well  as  the  simplest  phonetically  considered,  an  outline  of 
that  language  is  here  presented,  the  dialect  of  Taos  having  been 
chosen.  The  Taos,  as  is  usual,  consider  themselves  superior  to  all 
other  Indians.  They  have  infinite  disdain  for  their  southern  neigh- 
bors, the  Tewa,  who  are  regarded  as  having  perverted  customs  and 
as  speaking  a  degenerate  form  of  the  Taos  language.  They  pride 
themselves  especially  on  occupying  the  highest  and  most  northerly 
of  all  the  Pueblo  villages,  and  the  tradition  that  the  Pueblo  Indians 
migrated  originally  from  the  north  is  so  impressed  upon  their  minds 

'Quoted  by  Chamberlain,  The  Child,  New  York,  1907,  p.  134. 


HARRINGTON]         TIWA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS  IJ 

that  this  location  alone  seems  to  them  sufficient  proof  that  they  are 
the  most  pristine  and  uncorrupted  of  Pueblo  villagers. 

Taos  Indians  usually  speak  of  their  pueblo  as  TMfa  when 
they  are  in  or  above  it.  When  below  the  village  TM  bd  is  used. 
TM  is  the  equivalent  of  Tewa  te,  houses,  village  ;  the  affixes  have 
locative  force.  It  is  said  that  an  old  name  of  the  village  is  ' lata- 
p'aifa  or  'Iatap°aibd,  meaning  the  place  of  the  red  {p'di)  willows 
(^lata).  The  people  of  Taos  commonly  call  themselves  ToUfa- 
t  'M  n  d  ma",  signifying  hterally  the  people  who  live  at  the  village. 
The  form  Taos  is  perhaps  a  Mexican  corruption  of  tod-. 

The  Taos  informants  were  three  in  number  :  Manuel  Mondragon, 
Jose  Lopez,  and  Santiago  Mirabal.  Most  of  the  material  was  ob- 
tained from  the  informant  first  named.  His  Indian  name  is  T°d  I  to, 
Sun  Elk.  He  is  a  patient  fellow  and  is  deeply  interested  in  the  re- 
cording of  his  language. 

Phonology 
General  Phonetic  Character 
The  impression  which  the  Tiwa  language  makes  on  the  ear  is 
smooth  and  pleasing.  There  are  no  harsh  consonants  and  no  com- 
binations of  consonants  except  those  caused  by  elision.  The  stops  are 
gently  exploded.  The  sounds  /,  in,  and  n  are  frequent.  The  oral 
vowels  are  clear  and  sonorous.  The  orinasal  vowels  have  little  of  the 
unpleasant  nasal  resonance  which  results  when  the  velum  is  drawn  far 
forward.  There  is  little  in  the  pronunciation  which  reminds  one  of 
the  tense,  impure  vowels  of  Towa ;  of  the  choking  sounds,  exces- 
sive nasalization,  and  remarkable  development  of  musical  accent 
which  characterize  Tewa;  of  the  coarse,  crackling,  half  voiced  quality 
of  Keresan  ;  or  of  the  voiced  and  unvoiced  mixed  vowels  promi- 
nent in  Ute  and  in  some  other  Nahuatlan  dialects. 

The  Individual  Sounds 
It  apppears  that  the  Taos  distinguish  in  their  speech  eleven 
vowels  and  twenty-five  consonants,  making  in  all  thirty-six  etymolog- 
ically  distinct  individual  sounds.  These  sounds  vary  considerably 
according  to  their  setting.  Yet  with  a  little  practice  they  can  be 
recognized  by  the  speaker  of  a  European  language  even  when  run 
together  in  rapid  speech,  and  can  be  readily  imitated. 

AM.  ANTH.,  N.  S.,  12 — 2. 


l8  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

The  vowels  are  presented  in  the  customary  form  of  the  vowel 
triangle.  The  contact  positions  of  the  consonants  are  given  in  the 
order  in  which  these  are  visited  by  the  exhaled  breath.  Beside 
each  sound  .stands  in  parenthesis  an  Indo-Germanic  word  containing 
a  nearly  equivalent  sound. 

Vowels 
Orinasal  vowels  : 

a"  (Fr.  a«gle,  angle) 
a"  (Fr.  d/«don,  turkey)  a"  (Fr.  dind<7«,  turkey) 
i"  (Skt.  raqmZwr,  rays)  u"  (Skt.  sun««r,  sons) 

Oral  vowels  : 

a  (Eng.  frtther) 
a  (Fr.  \a  bas,  down  there)     a  (Fr.  la  has,  down  there) 
i  (Eng.  machme)  u  (Eng.  n/le) 

6  (Ger.  sch^n) 

Consonants 

Semi-vowels : 

j     (Eng.  halleluyah) 

w  (Eng.  atcay) 
Larynx  consonants : 

'    (may  open  Eng.  vowels  beginning  words) 

h    (Eng.  //ow) 
Back  of  tongue  consonants  : 

k  (South  Ger.  /l-atze,  cat) 

k'  (Eng.  too/^  off) 

X    (Ger.  ar/ii) 

g   (Eng.  ^o) 

k"  (Eng.  ^warter) 

x"  (North  Eng.  ic/^at) 
Front  of  tongue  consonants  : 

t     (South  Ger.  /ag,  day) 

f   (Eng.  ha/  off) 

t°  (Eng.  swea/-/<ouse) 

d   (Eng.  ^o) 

f  (South  Ger.  ;?ahn,  tooth) 

t"  (Eng.  \va.ts  off) 

s    (Eng.  so) 


HARRINGTON]         TIIVA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS  1 9 

}    (Welsh  //ai,  clay  ;  Eng.  pa//i/ess) 

1    (Eng.  /ove) 

n    (Eng.  ;/ow) 
Lip  consonants  : 

p    (South  Ger.  /oet,  poet) 

p'  (Eng.  ca/  off) 

p°  (Eng.  shee/!>-/eorn) 

b    (Eng.  boy) 

m  (Eng.  ;«an) 
Voiced  and  voiceless  sounds  are  not  as  clearly  distinguished  as 
in  English. 

The  orinasal,  i.  e.,  mouth-nose,  vowels  are  pronounced  with  the 
velum  hanging  freely  as  when  one  breathes  through  mouth  and 
nose  simultaneously.  In  their  production  the  voiced  breath  escapes 
through  both  mouth  and  nose.  The  calls  of  the  lower  mammals 
are  most  frequently  orinasal.  The  birth-cry  of  the  human  babe  is 
a",  and  a  similar  sound  is  heard  in  the  groaning  of  the  adult. 
Vowels  of  this  class  are  very  numerous  in  Tanoan. 

The  oral  vowels  are  produced  with  the  velum  drawn  toward  the 
rear  wall  of  the  pharynx  so  as  to  allow  little  or  none  of  the  voiced 
air  to  escape  through  the  nose.  The  sound  o  has  no  counterpart 
among  the  orinasal  vowels.  It  resembles  weakly  rounded  German 
o.  It  sounds  Hke  the  "  impure  vowel  "  of  Shoshonean  dialects 
which  has  been  variously  written  6,  o,  ii,  il. 

Vowels  are  accompanied  by  much  breath,  especially  at  the  close. 
Vowels  following  h,  x,  f  and  p°  are  more  breathy  than  others.  A 
special  series  of  aspirated  vowels  has  not  been  detected. 

A  voiceless  vowel  of  the  quality  of  a"  results  when  a"  is  most 
completely  elided  within  a  sentence. 

J  and  iv  differ  from  i  and  11  respectively  only  in  being  much 
shorter.  They  have  no  more  fricative  quality  than  do  the  vowels 
which  they  resemble. 

The  explosion  produced  by  closing  and  then  suddenly  opening 
the  glottis  is  one  of  the  commonest  sounds  in  the  languages  of  the 
world.  This  sound  is  heard  in  coughing  and  grunting.  In  English 
it  may  occur  as  an  opener  of  vowels  commencing  a  word.  It  is  un- 
naturally audible  between  the  words  at  and  all  in  a  current  affected 


20  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  L"-  s.,  12,  1910 

pronunciation  of  the  phrase  at  all  which  distinguishes  at  all  from  a 
tall.  This  sound  may  be  called  the  glottal  catch  or  the  glottal  stop. 
In  Taos  it  is  slightly  audible  before  all  syllables  which  do  not  begin 
with  any  other  consonant.  It  also  combines  with  k,  t,  p,  and  t'  to 
form  k' ,  f ,  p' ,  t" ,  described  below.     It  is  not  heard  as  a  vowel  closer. 

The  consonant  h  is  a  weak  whisper  caused  by  glottal  narrowing. 
It  has  the  timber  of  a  contiguous  vowel  or  vowels. 

There  are  five  series  of  mouth  stops  :  ( i )  weakly  voiced,  k,  t,  t', 

p  ;  (2)  with  simultaneous  closure  of  the  glottis,  ^'/'>  ^". /';  (3)  with 
following  aspiration,  T,  p" ;  (4)  with  simultaneous  «  position,  k" ;  (5) 
weakly  voiced  with  long  and  firm  contact,,^,  d,  b.  There  is  perhaps 
still  another  series,  —  long  and  firm  k,  t,  p,  which  have  been  ob- 
served only  as  a  result  of  the  elision  of  the  syllables  ga",  da',  bd^ 
respectively.  There  are  indications  that  the  fricative  continuants  x 
and  jr",  now  lacking  complete  closure,  are  respectively  derived  from 
earlier  If  and  k"'',  thus  making  series  (3)  and  (4)  more  complete ; 
see  below.  However,  ga"  occasionally  assumes  the  form  xu,  sug- 
gesting a  connection  between  x  and  g. 

The  stops  k,  t,  t',  p  are  veiy  gently  exploded  as  in  South 
German  ; '  voice  apparently  does  not  cease  and  is  prominent  sooner 
after  the  explosion  than  in  the  case  of  English  k,  t,  p.  The  spell- 
ings kg,  td,  pb  would  suggest  the  character  of  the  sounds. 

In  pronouncing  k",  f ,  t" ,  p'  a  closure  of  the  glottis  seems  to  oc- 
cur simultaneously  with  the  assuming  of  the  stop  position  by  the 
organs  of  the  mouth.  The  larynx  is  then  slightly  raised,  compress- 
ing the  air  between  the  glottis  closure  and  the  mouth  closure.  As 
a  result  of  the  formation  of  this  small  chamber  of  compressed  air  the 
mouth  explosion  when  it  occurs  has  slight  force  and  differs  in  ac- 
oustic effect  from  a  mouth  explosion  the  air  pressure  of  which  is 
produced  directly  by  the  lungs.  A  slight  explosion  in  the  larynx 
resembling  the  ordinary  glottal  stop  described  above  follows  immed- 
iately after  the  mouth  explosion.  Some  of  the  makers  of  Tiwa 
vocabularies  have  omitted  to  write  initial  k\  t' ,  p'.  They  probably 
heard  only  the  larynx  explosion  or  glottal  stop,  which  as  elsewhere 


'This  pronunciation  is  illustrated  by  the  much  quoted  saying  that  King  George  I  of 

England  was  fond  of  "  boetry  and  art." 


HARRINGTON]         TIWA    LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS  21 

they  neglected  to  record.  Thus  "a,"  water,  instead  of  p'd.  A 
similar  series  of  stops  existing  in  the  Mayan  languages  of  Mexico 
and  Central  America  have  been  termed  "  letras  heridas,"  wounded 
letters.  Perhaps  the  "  fortes  "  and  "  velars  "  of  some  other  Ameri- 
can languages  are  in  reality  such  sounds.  The  Georgian  language 
of  the  Caucasus  possesses  stops  which  sound  exactly  like  these  of 
Tiwa.  The  nearest  English  approximates  are  contained  in  such 
combinations  as  took  off,  hat  off,  hats  off,  cap  off,  when  the  vowel 
of  the  second  word  is  opened  by  the  glottal  stop.  A  good  name 
for  the  consonants  of  this  series  would  be  grunted  stops. 

T",  p"  differ  from  /,  p  respectively  by  being  accompanied  by 
more  breath.  They  are  not  harsh  sounds,  but  the  breathy  glide 
following  the  explosion  is  very  audible.  The  sign  °  is  adopted  from 
Bell's  Visible  Speech. 

As  remarked  above,  x  seems  to  belong  to  this  series,  but  is  now 
a  continuant  resembling  German  ch.  The  corresponding  Tewa 
sound  is  k".  Tewa  may  here  be  more  retentive  than  Taos.  If  it 
should  be  proved  that  Taos  k"  has  become  x  while  i"  and  p"  have 
remained  unchanged,  the  development  is  paralleled  in  classic  Greek, 
in  which  it  is  believed  ;f  became  a  continuant  earlier  than  did  0 
and  f. 

K"  and  ^'  are  single  sounds,  being  simultaneous  pronunciations 
of  k  and  zv,  and  x  and  w  respectively. 

G,  d,  b  have  long,  firm  closure  as  in  English.  When  gd^,  dd', 
bd^  are  ehded  the  resulting  k,  t,  p  have  this  same  kind  of  closure 
but  less  voice,  although  they  have  been  written  in  this  paper  exactly 
like  the  k,  t,  p  of  different  quality  and  origin. 

5'  and  t  are  often  weakly  voiced.  The  s  position  is  with  tongue 
touching  the  upper  side  teeth  and  gums,  allowing  breath  to  escape 
across  the  front  teeth.  The  i  position  is  in  a  way  the  reverse  of 
that  of  s.  The  tongue  is  pressed  against  the  upper  front  teeth  and 
gums,  but  lets  breath  escape  across  the  side  teeth.  Usually  more 
of  the  sound  is  produced  at  one  side  of  the  mouth  than  at  the  other. 
The  sound  resembles  Welsh  //,  less  closely  English  thl.  It  has 
usually  been  written  s  by  vocabulary  makers.  In  Tewa,  both  Tiwa 
$  and  i  are  represented  by  a  single  s-like  sound. 

The  contact  of  /,  n,  in  is  long  and  firm. 


22  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

Phonetic  Processes 

The  Tiwa  syllable  consists  of  a  consonant  plus  a  vowel  or  diph- 
thong. Syllable-closing  consonants  and  apparent  combinations  of 
consonants  are  due  to  elision  ;  see  below. 

Combinations  of  vowels  are,  however,  frequent.  Peculiar 
diphthongs  are  largely  respon.sible  for  the  strange  impression  which 
the  language  makes  on  our  ear.  Each  Taos  diphthong  consists  of 
two  rapidly  uttered  and  equally  stressed  vowels  so  welded  together 
as  to  form  a  single  syllable.  The  duration  of  the  diphthong  is  not 
greater  than  that  of  an  undiphthongized  vowel.  Therefore  in  writing 
these  diphthongs  a  breve  has  been  placed  over  each  of  the  constitu- 
ent vowels.  The  chief  difference  between  Taos  diphthongs  and  those 
of  Indo-Germanic  languages  seems  to  be  this,  that  in  the  former 
each  of  the  vowels  is  pronounced  with  equal  force,  while  in  the  latter 
one  element  invariably  bears  greater  stress  than  does  the  other. 
The  majority  of  the  Taos  diphthongs  admit  of  no  analysis  into 
simpler  morphological  elements,  but  correspond  as  wholes  to  simple, 
undiphthongized  vowel  sounds  in  the  Towa  and  Tewa  languages,  in 
which  no  diphthongs  are  known  to  occur.  Compare  Taos  tna, 
Tewa  su,  arrow  ;  Taos/'f^,  Towa/V,  mountain.  An  examination 
of  words  borrowed  by  one  Tanoan  language  from  another,  mostly 
personal  and  place  names,  makes  it  seem  probable  that  the 
diphthongs  of  Taos  Tiwa  are  not  the  result  of  recent  vowel-breaking 
or  of  combinatory  processes,  but  are  rather  a  feature  of  archaic 
Tanoan  speech  preserved  in  Tiwa.  The  development  in  Towa  and 
Tewa  would  be  comparable  to  that  which  rendered  the  Slavic  lan- 
guages of  the  Indo-Germanic  stock  diphthongless.  A  few  of  the 
Tiwa  diphthongs,  however,  clearly  originate  in  a  juxtaposition  of 
vowels  occasioned  by  the  grammatical  processes  of  the  language. 
Thus  'Ifi  im(\  they  3  -|-  animate  them  3  -f-  inanimate  saw.  But  one 
is  also  permitted  to  say  'tumu".  The  following  diphthongs  occur 
in  the  Taos  material  gathered  :  aX  a'a,  a"?  a"l,  ai,  an  la',  id,  m,  dl, 
fid,  I'd,  i>a,  bi. 

Taos  syllables  are  pronounced  with  force  so  nearly  equal  that 
stress  accent  has  not  been  indicated.  Musical  accent  is  probably  of 
even  less  importance  than  in  English. 

Like  other  speech,  that  of  Taos  is  slurred  or  elided.     There  lives 


HARRINGTON]         TIWA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF  TAOS  2$ 

at  the  pueblo  a  man  of  French  and  Mexican  descent  who  has  a 
good  knowledge  of  the  language,  but  as  often  as  he  speaks  it  the 
Indians  are  greatly  amused,  chiefly  it  is  said  because  he  does  not 
elide  correctly. 

The  law  of  elision  requires  that  the  syllables /rt",  wa",  xa",  gd!", 
da",  la",  na",  ba"  ma"  appear  only  before  a  pause,  usually  only  at  the 
end  of  a  clause  or  sentence.  Within  clauses  and  sentences  they  as- 
sume respectively  for  reasons  which  further  study  must  explain 
either  the  forms  ju,  zvu,  xu,  xu,  du,  hi,  nu,  bu,  viu,  or  I,  u,  k,  k,  t,  I, 
II,  p,  m.  It  should  be  noted  that  a"  of  all  the  vowels  most  nearly 
approximates  the  Tiwa  articulatory  basis,  and  that  a  non-syllabic 
unvoiced  vowel  of  the  timber  of  a",  which  has  not  been  written,  can 
be  perceived  after  most  completely  elided  forms  of  these  syllables. 
The  u  forms  are  remarkable.  This  law  gives  rise  to  all  final  con- 
sonants and  groups  of  con.sonants. 

Ablaut  or  other  regular  vowel  modification  has  not  been  ob- 
sei-ved  except  perhaps  in  the  case  of  the  elided  elements  just  re- 
ferred to. 

Rapidly  pronounced  vowels  differ  in  quality  from  the  normal 
vowels  of  careful  speech.  They  are  apt  to  imitate  the  timber  of 
vowels  of  contiguous  syllables.  This  phenomenon  is  known  as 
assimilation.  Assimilation  of  consonants  is  heard  even  in  slow 
speech.  Thus  by  progres.sive  assimilation,  f'o  n  fa,  for  fb  w  fa, 
where  she  lived;  by  retrogressive  assimilation, '«"«« //<3  ro<? ;««", 
for  'a"  ntuitafod  md",  they  2  went  to  get  wood,  it  is  said. 

Dissimilation  of  reduplicated  syllables  is  presented  in  fiiiti, 
make  a  s-s-s  sound. 

An  interesting  permutation  of  consonants  is  the  replacement  of 
k,  t,  t',  p  by  k\  t' ,  t" ,  p'  respectively  in  certain  verb  forms.  This- 
suggests  how  such  forms  as  Nahuatlan /«  and  Tanoan/'a,/V,  water,, 
may  be  related. 

Reduplication  is  very  seldom  resorted  to  by  the  language. 
Only  three  reduplicated  forms  were  encountered  in  the  material  col- 
lected. These  are:  xulxulta,  'ana,  round  dance  {ta,'ana,  dance); 
t"al  faTa"  na,  rattle;  t'ititi,  make  a  s-s-s  sound.  Repeated 
activity  is  denoted  in  each  case. 


24  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

Morphology 
Hoots  and  Affixes 

Tiwa  like  other  languages  is  an  exceedingly  complex  structure 
built  of  more  or  less  firmly  agglutinated  elements.  These  elements 
are  the  units  of  the  structure  of  language.  Psychology  discovers  in 
the  element  a  bundle  of  associations ;  physiology,  a  succession  of 
movements  and  positions  of  the  speech-organs  ;  phy.sics,  a  complex 
of  sound  waves.  Morphology,  the  study  of  linguistic  structure, 
regards  the  element  as  the  molecule  of  language,  and  does  not 
attempt  to  analyze  it. 

It  is  convenient  to  apply  the  term  root  to  the  significant,  cluster- 
originating  element  or  elements,  and  to  designate  as  affixes  other 
elements  of  a  cluster  the  function  of  which  is  modificatory  or  associ- 
ative. 

In  the  Tiwa  language  the  morphological  element  is  usually  a 
syllable,  that  is,  a  consonant  plus  a  vowel  or  diphthong.  Occasion- 
ally two  elements  combine  to  make  a  syllable,  or  two  or  more  syl- 
lables constitute  a  .single  element. 

The  process  of  combining  root  elements  with  other  root  elements 
is  known  as  compounding.  The  process  of  combining  root  elements 
with  affixes  is  known  as  affixing. 

Tiwa  compounds  are  of  three  types  :  (i)  noun  -f-  noun  ;  (2)  noun 
-f-  verb  ;  (3)  verb  -f  verb.  Letting  n  stand  for  noun,  v  for  verb,  all 
Tiwa  compounds  are  represented  by  the  formula  n=hn±n±n±v 
=t  V  ±  V  ±  v.  Formative  affixes  never  stand  between  the  roots 
compounded.  The  compound  behaves  precisely  as  if  it  were  a 
single  root.  The  meaning  of  the  compound  often  differs  from  that 
of  either  of  the  component  roots,  compounding  thus  becoming  a 
fruitful  means  of  enlarging  the  vocabulary. 

Affixes  may  be  distinguished  by  their  position  as  prefixes,  in- 
fixes, and  postfixes  (suffixe-s).  Tiwa  root  elements  are  commonly 
modified  by  postfixes  and  prefixes ;  infixes  do  not  occur. 

Two  Parts  of  Speech 
Two  kinds  of  root  elements,  or  in   other  words  two  parts  of 
speech,  are  distinguished.     These  are  with  tlieir  Taos  names :  (i) 
xd"  na  ma",   the   noun  root ;  (2)  /«"  '«"  na,  the  verb  root.     Nouns, 


HARRINGTON]         TIWA    LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS  25 

some  adjectives,  pronouns,  adverbs  and  conjunctions  may  be  roughly 
assigned  to  the  former  class  ;  verbs,  some  adjectives,  and  interjections 
belong  to  the  latter.  English  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  inflexions 
are  largely  expressed  by  affixes.  Some  elements  may  be  employed, 
with  different  affixes,  both  as  noun  and  verb  roots. 

XA"  NA  MA",   THE  NOUN  ROOT 

Gender,  Number,  and  Case 

Gender,  number,  and  case  may  find  formal  expres.sion  in  the 
affixes  of  the  noun,  in  the  pronoun,  or  in  processes  of  compounding. 

Animate  and  inanimate  gender  is  distinguished  by  noun  termina- 
tions, or  by  pronoun  elements  prefixed  to  noun  or  verb,  or  may  be 
unexpressed. 

Singular  and  2+  plural  number  is  indicated  by  noun  termina- 
tions ;  either  singular  and  2+  plural,  or  singular,  dual,  and  3  + plural 
number  may  be  indicated  by  pronoun  elements  prefixed  to  noun  or 
verb.  When  a  noun  is  not  the  last  member  of  a  compound,  its 
number  cannot  be  expressed  by  means  of  noun  terminations. 

Subject-case  denoting  subject,  object  case  denoting  object,  and 
referential  case  denoting  less  intimate  relation  between  noun  and 
verb  are  expressed  partly  by  the  presence  or  absence  of  noun  ter- 
minations, partly  by  noun  -f  verb  compounding,  chiefly  by  pronoun 
elements  prefixed  to  the  verb. 

The  Noun 

The  Taos  noun  is  under  certain  syntactic  conditions  accompanied 
by  a  postfix  which  we  call  a  noun  termination.  The  postfix  renders 
the  meaning  more  demonstrative  and  emphatic,  frequently  defines 
gender  as  animate  or  inanimate,  and  indicates  number  as  singular  or 
2-\-  plural.  The  verb  construed  with  a  noun  often  distinguishes 
singular,  dual,  or  3-)-  plural. 

A  noun  must  be  accompanied  by  its  termination  except  under 
the  following  conditions,  when  the  termination  must  be  omitted. 

(i)  If  the  noun  is  used  as  a  proper  noun,  animate  gender. 
Thus  with  terminations  sing.  Xwfwrt,  plu.  ,^di^ ««;;/«",  bear,  a  bear, 
the  bear  ;  without  terminations  sing.  kM,  plu.  kM,  Old  Bear,  Bruin. 
With   terminations  sing,  p'djd  na,  plu.  p'aja  no",  beaver,  a  beaver. 


26  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

the  beaver ;  without  terminations   sing.  P  'djd,  Beaver,  name  of  a 
Taos  Indian. 

(2)  If  the  noun  is  used  as  the  not  la.st  member  of  a  noun  +  noun 
compound.  Thus  uncompounded  with  terminations  sing,  kvdna, 
plu.  koandma'',  bear;  sing,  t'dina,  plu.  t'aifidma",  clan.  Com- 
pounded with  termination  of  last  member  only,  sing,  kba t'dina, 
bear  clan. 

(3)  If  the  noun  is  used  as  the  not  last  member  of  a  noun  +  verb 
compound ;  thus  uncompounded  with  terminations,  sing,  kbd  na 
'd  imtja,  the  bear  me  saw,  plu.  kod  nd  m  'd  mu'ja.  Compounded 
with  verb  root  as  object  without  terminations,  sing,  ti  kod  mu",  him 
I  the  bear  saw,  plu.  pi  kod  !>m" ,  them  I  the  bears  saw. 

(4)  If  the  noun  is  so  used  that  it  require  some  postfix  other 
than  the  terminations ;  thus  with  terminations,  sing,  kod  na, 
plu.  kod  nd  )na'\  bear ;  with  postfix  other  than  termination,  sing. 
kodhuijii,  plu.  kodhuijii,  like  a  bear;  sing,  'a"  nkbd'i.va'i,^\\i. 
'a"  n  kod  zva't  na",  my  hesLT.  In  brief,  terminations  must  be  used 
except  with  animate  proper  nouns,  nouns  used  as  not  last  members 
of  compounds,  or  nouns  requiring  some  postfix  other  than  the 
termination. 

Although  there  are  but  few  noun  terminations,  they  present  as 
much  irregularity  as  do  the  gender-number-case  endings  of  Indo- 
Germanic.  As  distinguished  by  termination  nouns  fall  into  seven 
classes  : 

1.  Sing,  -na,  plu.  -nd.  Many  nouns  denoting  inanimate  objects 
or  substances  not  made  by  man,  especially  such  as  consist  notice- 
ably of  particles  or  parts,  are  included  here.  Three  types  of  termi- 
nation distinguished  by  the  manner  of  postfixation  are  illustrated  by 
the  following  nouns  :  (a)  Sing,  -na,  plu.  -nd.  Thus  sing,  ///ft  na, 
stone,  plu.  /lift  nd,  stones,  (b)  The  vowel  in  which  the  noun  root 
ends  is  repeated  plus  sing,  -na,  plu.  -nd.  Thus  sing,  p'd  'a  na,  a 
particle,  body,  or  stream  of  water,  plii.  />'d  'a  nd,  water,  (c)  Sing. 
-(«)a  na,  plu.  -{n)d  nd.  Thus  />"a  nd  na,  a  particle,  flake  ,or  crystal 
of  snow  ;  plu.  />"a  nd  nd,  snow. 

2.  Sing,  -na,  plu.  -nd.  Nouns  of  this  class  signify  inanimate 
objects  or  substances  made  by  man  or  by  some  personified  instru- 
mentality.    The  terminations  are  the  same  as  those  of  nouns  of 


HARRINGTONJ         TliVA    LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAD'S  2/ 

class  I  and  the  same  three  types  of  postfixation  are  distinguished  ; 
but  when  a  noun  of  this  class  is  compounded  or  used  without  a 
termination  or  other  postfix  the  indefinite  pronoun  element  na"  is 
prefixed.  This  same  ««"  is  prefixed  to  verbs  ;  see  page  34.  Thus 
sing.  t°b  na,  house,  plu.  t°d  ttd,  houses  ;  but  without  a  postfix  sing, 
and  plu.  «rt"  fb,  house,  houses,  as  in  na'  to  mit  (he)  saw  houses. 

3.  Sing.  -7ia,  plu.  -na".  This  class  includes  many  nouns  desig- 
nating animals  and  peoples.  There  are  three  types  of  postfixation 
as  in  classes  i  and  2.  As  an  illustration,  type  (a)  sing,  p'djd  na, 
beaver,  plu.  p'dja  na',  beavers. 

4.  Sing,  -na,  plu.  -ndma'.  In  this  class  are  found  many  nouns 
signifying  human  beings  and  animals,  especially  those  indicating 
human  social  groups  and  animal  genera.  Three  types  are  distin- 
guished, (a)  Sing,  -na,  plu.  -nd  ma'.  Thus  sing.  kM  na,  bear, 
plu.  kbd  nd  ma',  bears,  (b)  The  vowel  in  which  the  noun  root 
ends  is  repeated  plus  sing,  -na,  plu.  -nd  ma".  Thus  sing. 
pod'  na,  fish,  plu.  pd'bndma',  fish(es).  (c)  Sing.  -(ii)dna,  plu. 
-{ii)dndma'.    Thus  sing,  sod  na  na,  man,  plu.  sod  nd  nd  ma',  men. 

5.  Sing,  -ndma',  plu.  -na.  All  that  can  be  said  of  the  nouns 
which  belong  here  is  that  they  are  frequently  used  in  the  plural. 
What  appears  to  be  a  plural  termination  is  added  to  the  singular  ; 
a  singular  termination  is  used  in  the  plural.  The  verb  adjusts  itself 
to  the  termination,  a  plural  verb  accompanying  the  singular  ;  a  dual 
verb,  the  dual  ;  a  singular  verb,  the  plural.  Thus  sing,  tud  fid  ma"^, 
arrow,  plu.  tud  na,  arrows. 

6.  Sing,  -nd  ma',  plu.  -nd.  The  usage  of  these  nouns  is  the 
same  as  in  class  5.  Nouns  of  this  class  are  rare.  Thus  sing. 
xd"  ttd  ma"",  name  ;  plu.  xd'  nd,  names. 

7.  Nouns  having  one  termination  only  are  grouped  here.  They 
are  collective  in  meaning.      Thus  zvond,  milk. 

Some  nouns  have  more  than  one  plural.  Thus  i  b,  sing,  id  "o  nd 
spot,  elk,  leaf  of  book,  book  ;  1st  plu.  to  "ond,  spots,  leaves  of  books, 
books  ;  2nd  plu.  to  "o  nd  ma',  elks.  It  is  explained  that  both  elk 
and  leaf  of  a  book  are  called  thus  because  spotted. 

A  noun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  is  never  compounded  with 
the  verb.  Such  a  noun  has  its  termination  except  under  conditions 
stated  above. 


28  ■         AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,   1910 

A  noun  which  is  either  the  direct  object  or  the  referential  object 
of  the  verb  is  regularly  compounded  with  the  verb.  The  noun  root 
is  then  stripped  of  its  affixes.  Pronominal  elements  are  prefixed  to 
the  compound  to  give  partial  expression  of  gender,  number,  and 
person,  and  to  define  the  relation  in  which  the  noun  stands  to  tHe 
verb.  Thus  :  tikbd  mu^,  him  I  bear  saw  ■,pikua  mu",  them  I  bears 
saw.  Both  direct  and  referential  objects  may  be  compounded,  the 
referential  preceding  the  direct.  Thus  :  sM  ?id  na  'a'  kdfip'd  vim  had, 
the  man  he-it-him  ('«")  the  horse  {kati)  water  (/  'a)  gives  {iviahfid). 
See    prefixed  referential  object  pronouns,  p.  34. 

The  singular  direct  object  must  be  compowuicd.  The  plural 
direct  object  noun  is  usually  compounded,  but  may  be  given  tlieform 
which  it  would  have  if  it  tvere  the  subject,  the  pronoun  elements 
which  accompany  the  verb  defining  its  case  function. 

Thus  one  is  permitted  to  say  either  //  kod  tnu",  them  I  bears 
saw  ;  or  kM  nd  mu  pi  inu",  bears  them  I  saw.  The  singular  direct 
object  permits  only  one  form  :  ti  kM  imt,  him  I  bear  saw.  The 
singular  or  plural  referential  object  may  or  may  not  be  compounded. 
Prefixed  pronoun  elements  appearing  early  in  the  verb  cluster  govern 
and  interpret  these  compounding  processes. 

Compounding  of  nouns  with  verbs,  such  as  has  been  described, 
has  often  been  termed  incorporation.  W.  von  Humboldt  illustrates 
"  incorporation  "  by  the  Nahua  sentence  ;  compounded  or  incorpor- 
ated ni  nica  qua,  I-meat-eat ;  uncompounded  or  non-incorporated 
nic  qua  in  naca  tl,  I-it-eat  meat.  Taos  exactly  parallels  these  Nahua 
constructions  :  compounded  or  incorporated,  'a  tua  k'a  la",  I-meat- 
ate ;  uncompounded  or  non-incorporated,  'a  k'a  lu  tiid  nd,  I-it-ate 
meat.'  Incorporation  is  a  very  objectionable  name  for  this  process 
since  it  refers  to  noun  +  verb  compounding  only,  and  therefore 
requires  us  to  resort  to  other  terminology  in  naming  other  processes 
of  compounding  which  are  grammatically  identical.  Noun  -)-  verb 
compounding  describes  what  actually  occurs. 

Simple  and  composite  postfixes  of  locative,  directional,  or  rela- 
tional force  are  frequently  appended  to  noun  elements.  A  few  of 
these  may  be  used  with  verb  elements  also.      Elxamples  are  : 

'  Fortunately  for  the  sake  of  this  comparison  the  Taos  word  meaning  meat,  tuinS, 
is  commonly  plural,  the  singular,  tuina,  signifying  a  morsel  of  meat.  Therefore  both 
compounded  and  uncompounded  object  constructions  could  be  employed,  as  stated  above. 


HARRINGTON]         TIWA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  01    TAOS  29 

-fa,  in,  at 

-ta,  down  in,  down  at  >  used  with  sing. 

-na,  in 

-W(f,  in,  at,  used  with  2+  plu. 

-bd,  up  in,  up  at 

-ga'^,  down  in,  down  at 

-plu,  toward  in  horizontal  direction 

-piba",  up  toward 

-piga",  down  toward 

-pan  fa,  near 

-pua  'aja"^,  very  near 

-p''lil  I ga" ,  with,  denoting  accompaniment  or  association 

-tolbd,  at  the  side  of 

-xa"  nd"  t"a,  at  the  end  of 

-pUd  bd,  at  the  base  of 

-na"^  t°a,  under 

-««"  7na,  under 

-wa  na",  on  the  side  of,  on  the  slope  of 

-k'ita,  on  top  of,  on  (contiguous) 

-k'odt°a,  at  the  surface  of 

-k'oata,  down  at  the  surface  of 

-k'od'aiva",  at  the  surface  of,  used  with  2+  plu. 

-^'3a  'aga",  down  at  the  surface  of 

-k'indl,  above  (not  contiguous) 

-t'utfa,  outside  of 

-xo  It  mi  ina'^,  aroun  d 

-piiiwO",  through 

-p'alta,  down  inside  of 

-pldndU,  between,  among 

■pldnna,  in  between,  in  among 

-pld  n  fa,  between,  among 

-ba,  with,  denoting  instrumentality 

-htilju,  like 

The  etymology  of  ,^'^^  is  of  interest.  The  postfixes  containing 
k'oa  listed  above  mean  at  the  surface  of,  at  the  top  of  The  primary 
meaning  of  koa  is  neck.  This  usage  reminds  one  of  the  African  who 
says  "  house-belly  "  for  in  the  house. 


.  >  used  with  sing. 


30  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

Rendering  of  English  Adjectives 

English  adjectives  are  rendered  in  Taos  either  by  nouns  or  verbs. 
Attributive  and  predicative  constructions  are  not  differentiated. 

(i)  The  adjective  may  be  regarded  as  a  ^w7/«  root  of  generaUzed 
meaning.  It  adds  terminations  and  is  compounded  Hke  a  noun 
root.  Thus  la  sing,  fa  xo  na,  shell,  plu.  p'a  xdiiH,  shells  ;  la  sing. 
p'af'd  na,  whiteness,  plu.  p'a  fond,  whitenesses.  Compounded  la 
sing,  p' a  xo  p' a  fd  na,  shell  whiteness  or  white  shell,  plu.  p'axo- 
p'a  fd  nd,  shell  whitenesses  or  white  shells. 

One  of  these  adjectival  noun  roots  could  well  be  called  the 
Taos  "diminutive."  This  is  with  termination  4b  sing,  'u'una, 
smallness,  prettiness,  dearness,  oldness,  small  object,  small  one,  etc., 
child,  plu.  'u  'u  nd  ma''.  Compounded  with  the  word  for  bear  this 
gives  with  terminations  4b  sing,  kba  'u  'u  na,  bear  smallness,  small 
bear,  plu.  kda  'u  'u  nd  ma",  bear  smallnesses,  little  bears.  An  ex- 
ample of  noun  +  noun  +  verb  compounding  is:  tikoa'u  mu",  I 
him  bear  smallness  saw,  I  saw  the  little  bear.  This  root  'u  is  as 
common  and  varies  as  greatly  in  meaning  as  German  -chen,  -kin. 

(2)  The  English  adjective  is  expressed  by  various  'ocrb  construc- 
tions. Beside  regular  verbs  we  find  the  following  constructions 
performing  this  function  :  (a)  Use  of  the  postfixes  'i  or  wa  'i,  de- 
noting possesion,  with  noun  +  verb  compounds.  Thus  noun  root 
to,  spot ;  verb  root  k'uju,  be  pretty ;  compound  with  possession 
postfix  tok'uju'i,  (he)  is  pretty  having  spots,  prettily  spotted,  be- 
side the  regular  to  k'uj'u  ma",  (he)  is  pretty  as  regards  spots.  (b) 
Use  of  verb  roots  with  prefixed  possessive  pronouns.  Thus  verb 
root  ma  so,. he  glad;  'a  n  ma  so  /lii  (1,my  present,  gladness  or  I  am 
glad. 

English  adjective  comparison  is  sometimes  rendered  by  the  free 
adverbs  iai",    very,  more,  most,  or  lia  la,  almost,  less,  least. 

Numeral  Expression 
The  numeral  root  is  used  now  as  a  noun,  now  as  a  verb.  The 
system  is  decimal.  The  numerals  2  and  4,  3  and  5,  8  and  9, 
appear  respectively  to  be  etymologically  connected.  The  numeral 
6  is  said  to  mean  piece,  referring  to  one  hand  plus  one  piece  or 
unit.     The  verb   ma"  li-  means  to  break   or  tear  to  pieces.     The 


HARRINGTON]         TIIVA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS 


31 


Indians  when  counting  usually  begin  again  with  i  after  ten  units 
have  been  enumerated.  There  are,  however,  words  for  the  tens  up 
to  and  including  one  hundred.  Numeral  classifiers  do  not  occur. 
There  are  several  series  of  numerals  in  constant  use  :  (i)  enu- 
merative,  used  in  counting  ;  (2)  responsive,  used  in  answering  ;  (3) 
adjectival,  used  with  nouns,  and  having  endings  denoting  animate 
or  inanimate  gender,  and  number  ;  (4)  substantival,  used  as  nouns 
with  endings  denoting  animate  and  inanimate  gender  and  number ; 
(S)  ordinal,  used  to  denote  relative  position  or  sequence  ;  (6)  multi- 
plicative, used  to  designate  the  number  of  times  ;  (7)  fractional. 
Only  two  fractional  numerals  are  in  use;  pldndlti,  half,  and 
ha  lapin  ?iai  ti,  any  fraction  smaller  than  a  half.  Some  of  the  enu- 
merative,  ordinal,  and  multiplicative  numerals  are  given  below. 


One  wa"  ma" 
Two  wi  'i  na" 
Three  pajoa 
Four   wia  na" 
Five   p'anjua 
Six   ma°  li 
Seven  t'u 
Eight   x°i  li 

First    f'uba" 
Second  jiabata 
Third   pau  wa  ta 


Enumerative. 

Nine  x^fa" 

Ten  ta"  ma" 

Eleven    ta"  m  wa"  ma" 

Twenty  wita" 

Thirty    pajuata" 

One  hundred   ta"  ta"  or  ta"  ta"  la" 

One  thousand  ta"  ta"  ta"  or 

ta"  ta"  tii"  la" 
Ordinal. 

Fourth   wia  na"  wi  ta 
Fifth  p'anjua  wita 


Multiplicative. 

Four  times    wia  na"  wi  na" 
Five  times  p'  a  n  j  ua  wi  na" 


Once  wi  ba 
Twice  wiju 
Three  times  pau  wi  na" 

The  Pronoun 
There  are  numerous  sets  of  pronouns.  First,  second,  and  third 
person  is  always  distinguished ;  a  few  forms  express  near,  less  re- 
mote, and  more  remote  third  person.  In  some  pronoun  sets  differ- 
ent forms  occur  for  animate  and  inanimate  gender.  Number  is  either 
not  recognized  at  all,  or  singular  and    2 -f  plural  or  again  singular, 


32  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

dual,  and  3  +  plural  is  expressed.  Subject,  object,  and  referential 
cases  and  combinations  of  these  cases  find  more  or  less  complete 
expression.  Inclusive  and  exclusive  forms  for  the  first  person  plural 
are  not  differently  expressed. 

Pronoun  elements  are  used  with  nouns  or  with  verbs. 

The  sets  of  pronouns  fall  into  two  groups,  free  and  prefixed. 

Free  Pronouns 

Free  pronouns  stand  outside  the  noun  or  verb  cluster,  almost 
anywhere  in  the  sentence.  They  are  usually  in  apposition  with  nouns  or 
prefixed  pronouns.  They  may  be  used  subjectively,  objectively,  and 
referentially,  and  may  like  nouns  be  provided  with  postfixes.  They 
often  lend  a  necessary  definiteness  to  the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 

(i)  The  free  emphatic  personal  pronouns  may  always  be  omitted 
without  changing  the  sentence  meaning  materially.  They  are  com- 
mon in  answer  to  questions.  Person  only  is  distinguished.  They 
are  ««",  I,  me,  we,  us  ;  'a",  thou,  thee,  ye,  you  ;  'a^wana",  he,  him, 
she,  her,  it,  they,  them.  When  apposite  with  referential  prefixed 
pronouns  the  forms  «a"  m  Id,  'a"  m  ki  and  'a"  tva  710!"  in  ki  may  be 
used.     Compare  ki,  postfix  of  purpose  infinitives. 

(2)  The  free  demonstrative  pronouns  express  three  positions  and 
two  numbers.  Some  of  them  are  :  sing.  y«  na,  plu.ytt  nix  ma",  this  ; 
sing,  ja  na,  plu.  jd  na  nut,  that  (less  remote);  sing,  wd  ti,  plu. 
wa  na  ma'',  that  (more  remote). 

(3)  Examples  of  free  indefinite  pronouns  are  hi,  anything,  some- 
thing ;  smg.juniihi,  'p\\i.juandmhi,  somebody. 

(4)  An  illustration  of  a  free  interrogative  not  used  except  in 
questions  isp'u",  who?  All  the  other  free  pronouns,  especially  the 
indefinite,  are  also  used  interrogatively  without  change  in  form. 

Adverbs  and  Conjunctions 

Closely  akin  to  the  free  pronouns  but  in  many  instances  acting 
rather  as  pro-verbs  and  pro-clauses  are  numerous  unattached  words 
which  we  may  call  adverbs  and  conjunctions.  These  are  difficult 
to  analyze,  but  some  are  clearly  free  pronoun  roots  with  aflfi.xes. 

(i)  Adverbs  are  :  hit,  thus  ;  hii  ta,  in  this  manner  {ta  =  in)  ;  ju, 
thus  ;  ja,  hither  ;  Jitju",  here  ;  jctju",  there  (less  remote)  ;  wdju'', 
there  (more  remote)  ;  hi  'a  na",  by  doing  something,  how ;  hi,  per- 


HARRINGTON]         TIIVA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS  33 

haps  (identical  with  the  free  indefinite  pronoun  hi).  Adverbs  Hke 
the  free  pronouns  may  be  interrogative. 

(2)  Conjunctions  are  either  free  or  must  stand  at  the  beginning 
or  end  of  clauses. 

Standing  almost  anywhere  :  ha  da",  soon,  enough,  already,  and 
now,  and  then,  and ;  ha  ha,  but,  also,  and  ;  xa",  then,  when,  when- 
ever, since,  because,  therefore,  you  know. 

Standing  at  the  beginning  of  clauses  and  sentences  :  'Mtd  w«", 
in  that  case  ;  'dl  xd"  na",  in  case,  if ;  hn  xa'\  so  then,  accordingly. 

Standing  at  the  end  of  clauses  and  sentences  :  jttd  liUl  lud  na", 

whenever,  as  often  as  ;  kinna,  as  soon  as  ;  k' Al,  after  ;  xuhu  (xa" 

+  hu)  then  so,  because  ;  ndl  ti,  since  (temporal)  ;    nid"  xa",  while  ; 

md"  na",  after. 

Prefixed  Pronouns 

Pronouns  of  these  series  are  placed  before  the  root  in  noun  and 
verb  clusters,  and  in  transposed  rootless  constructions  directly  before 
postfixes.  They  are  indispensible  to  the  cluster  and  with  it  form  a 
sentence.  The  elements  are  slight  and  two  or  more  are  frequently 
so  coalesced  as  to  form  a  single  syllable.  Verb  prefixed  pronouns 
of  definite  meaning  do  not  occur  in  the  third  person  singular  subject 
and  object  case.  Thus  md",  he,  she,  or  it  went ;  imi",  he,  she,  or 
it  saw  him,  her,  or  them.  Elsewhere  the  pronoun  must  be  formally 
expressed. 

(i)  Prefixed  possessive  pronouns  are  subjoined  to  noun  and 
verb  elements.  Person  and  number  are  expressed.  The  noun 
termination  may  be  replaced  by  postfixes  denoting  possession. 
Thus  ka  na,  mother  ;  'a  n  ka  na,  my  mother  ;  'a  «  ka  wa  'i,  my 
(own)  mother.  If  the  possessive  pronoun  refers  to  the  subject  of 
the  sentence  we  have  the  choice  of  two  constructions  :  uncom- 
pounded  or  untransposed,  ' a  n pd"  zva  'i  timu",  my  deer  own  him-I 
saw  ;  compounded  or  transposed,  tipd"  ntu"  'a  n  wa  'i,  him-I  deer 
saw  my  own.  These  pronouns  plus  nouns  may  also  translate 
English  predicate  construction.  Thus  'a  n  ka  na  or  'a  n  ka  iva  'i 
may  have  the  sense,  she  is  my  mother  or  who  is  my  mother.  Only 
a  few  verb  roots  prefix  these  pronouns.  The  ordinary  verb  post- 
fixes are  appended.  Thus  ma  so  to  be  glad;  '  anmasohfid,  my 
present  gladness  or  I  am  glad. 

AM.  ANTH.,  N.  S.,  12-3. 


34  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  12,  1910 

(2)  Prefixed  subject  pronouns  accompany  conspicuously  verbs 
denoting  motion  or  position  and  the  passive  form  of  verbs.  Thus 
'a  mii",  I  went ;  'a  'a",  I  sat.  The  pronouns  are  only  eight  in 
number,  person  and  number  being  expressed  :  'd,\;  'a"  fta",  we  2  ; 

'/,  we   3  ;   '«",  you  I  ;  ;«a"  ««",  you   2  ;  ma",  you  3  ;  ,  he,  she, 

or  it ;  '«"  tta",  they  2  ;  '?,  they  3.     The  first  and  third  persons  dual 
and  3+  plural  are  the  same. 

(3)  The  prefixed  third  person  subject  pronoun  indefinite  is  tut". 
To  illustrate  :  na^fldja,  it  is  said,  or  they  (indefinite)  say  ;  na"  p'a- 
fi"  'ayaa,  it  or  they  fire  flash  happened,  i.  e.  it  lightened.  The 
noun  prefix  ««"  of  class  2  is  evidently  identical. 

(4)  In  the  prefixed  subject  +  object  pronouns  combinations  of 
animate  and  inanimate  gender ;  singular,  dual,  and  plural  number  ; 
subject  and  object  case  ;  and  first,  second,  and  third  persons  find 
somewhat  incomplete  and  irregular  expression.  The  subject  and 
object  do  not  refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing.  Third  person 
singular  subject  +  third  person  singular  object  is  not  pronominally 
expressed ;  thus  tmt,  he,  she,  or  it,  saw  him,  her,  or  it.  The  pro- 
noun elements  are  closely  knit  together,  forming  one  or  two  syllables, 
subject  element  preceding  object  element.  The  number  of  com- 
binations is  perhaps  more  than  fifty.  Examples  :  ti  mu",  him,  her, 
or  it  I  saw ;  pimu",  them  2+  I  saw. 

(5)  Prefixed  reflexive-reciprocal  subject  -|-  object  pronouns  are  ex- 
emplified by  :  ta"  mn",  I  looked  at  myself;  'imamu",  each  of  them 
3-f-  looked  at  himself,  or  they  3-f  looked  at  one  another.  In 
order  to  separate  reflexive  from  reciprocal  meanings  a  form  of  the 
free  emphatic  personal  pronoun  must  be  added.  Thus  'a'  ica"  n  ta 
'i  ma  mu",  each  of  them  3  -f-  looked  at  himself ;  'a"  iva"  n  na  '/  ma  mu', 
they  3 -I-  looked  at  one  another. 

(6)  Prefixed  referential  object  pronouns  denote  a  relation  be- 
tween the  subject,  the  verb,  and  some  person  or  thing  not  the  direct 
object.  The  direct  object  may  or  may  not  be  expressed.  The 
person  or  thing  referred  to  may  be  expressed  by  an  appositive  noun 
or  free  pronoun  outside  the  cluster.  The  reference  is  vague  and 
English  translations  for  each  form  are  therefore  numerous.  Gender, 
number,  and  person  are  partially  distinguished  as  in  (4)  and  (5). 
The  number  of  combinations  is  great.     Thus  ;««";«//?"  mu',  you  i 


HARRINGTON]         TIIVA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT   OP    TAOS  35 

him  with  reference  to  me  deer  saw,  you  i  saw  my  deer,  you  i  saw 
the  deer  by  me,  you  i  saw  the  deer  of  which  I  spoke,  you  i  saw 
the  deer  which  I  shot,  you  i  saw  a  deer  for  me,  you  i  saw  a  deer 
with  me,  you  i  saw  a  deer  before  I  did,  you  i  saw  a  deer  instead  of 
my  seeing  a  deer,  etc.  Third  person  singular  subject,  and  third 
person  singular  subject  +  third  person  singular  object,  are  sup- 
pressed as  in  prefixed  pronoun  sets  (2)  and  (4).  Thus  sod  no.  na 
'a"  kaap'aioiahiia,  the  man  (he  it)  with  reference  to  him  horse 
water  gives  ;  soil  nd  na  'a"  kdfip'd  haihUd,  the  man  (he  it)  with  refer- 
ence to  him  horse  water  takes  away. 

TU'''U''NA,   THE   VERB  ROOT 
The   Verb 

The  morphology  of  the  verb  resembles  that  of  the  noun.  Poly- 
.syllabic  roots  can  perhaps  be  analyzed  into  simpler  elements. 
Gender,  number,  case,  person,  tense,  aspect,  mood,  voice,  position, 
direction,  limit,  cause,  result,  etc.,  may  be  formally  expressed  in  the 
verb  cluster.  The  various  sets  of  pronouns  prefixed  to  verb  roots 
have  been  mentioned  above. 

Tense,  mood,  and  the  like,  are  either  not  formally  expressed,  or 
are  brought  out  by  affixes,  by  the  employment  of  two  verb  clusters, 
or  by  verb  -)-verb  compounding. 

Tense  is  indicated  largely  by  prefixes.  Negative  forms  differ 
from  the  corresponding  positive  forms  by  having  different  tense  post- 
fixes and  also  by  prefixing  a  negative  element  —  a  double  negative 
construction  such  as  is  used  in  many  languages.  Some  roots  re- 
quire one  suffix  to  express  a  certain  tense,  other  roots  a  different 
suffix.  Tenses  commonly  heard  are  illustrated  by  the  following 
forms  of  the  verb  ;««",  see. 

Tense  Positive  Negative 

Aorist  vm'^,  saw  wa  mu"  tni,  did  not  see 

Progressive   pres-  mu' hiid,  is  or  was  seeing     wamu'ma',  is  not  or  was 

ent  or  imperfect  not  seeing 

Immediate  future  mu'  hd',  is  about  to  see 

Indefinite  future  mu'Ja,  will  see  wa  mu"pu',  will  not  see 

Definite  future  j«  »?«"/«,  will  see  su  wa  mu' pu' ,  v/\\\  not  see 

Unreal  mu'Ja'a'na',  might  have 

seen 

Ideal  mu"  mi  «a",  may  see 


36  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [N.  s.,  12,  1910 

The  forms  given  above  are  in  the  third  person  singular.  Pre- 
fixed pronouns,  if  required,  are  placed  before  these  forms.  In  the 
negative  the  wa  may  even  be  omitted  ;  compare  French  negation  with 
pas.  Other  tense  postfixes  are  progressive  positive  ma^,  kd",  nega- 
tive mt".  Ma''  denotes  permanent  state  or  continuous  activity  and 
is  employed  as  tense-postfix  with  verbs  of  static  meaning.  Ma'  is 
also  one  of  the  formatives  of  derivative  verbs  ;  see  below. 

In  some  of  these  postfixes  an  original  positional  or  directional 
force  is  probably  still  felt.  The  progressive  tense  of  tnff',  go,  is 
ma"  hied,  is  going  (in  a  direction  away  from  the  speaker).  The 
progressive  tense  of  '«",  come,  is  '«"  //«",  is  coming  (in  a  direction 
towards  the  speaker).  The  forms  md"  ha"  and  'd"  had  do  not  exist. 
To  most  verb  roots,  however,  both  hftd  and  hd"  may  be  appended, 
hiia  suggesting  going,  progression,  duration  of  activity,  while  hd' 
denotes  coming,  immediate  futurity.  The  future  and  passive  -Ja 
calls  to  mind  the  adverb  ja,  hither ;  compare  hd".  The  negative 
progressive  -ma"  seems  to  be  the  same  as  the  verb  md",  go ;  com- 
pare hi4d. 

Customary  and  frequentative  aspect  is  expressed  by  prefixing 
ivt",  which  precedes  all  other  elements  in  the  verb  cluster  except  the 
prefixed  pronoun  :  thus  wi"  um'hfid,  used  to  see,  saw  again  and 
again. 

The  majority  of  sentences  are  indicative  statements  and  have  no 
formal  expression  of  mood. 

When  a  statement  is  made  according  to  tradition,  report,  or  other 
authority  outside  the  speaker  the  narratival  tvi  is  prefixed,  occupy- 
ing the  same  position  as  wi",  which  it  precedes  if  both  are  used. 
Thus  wi  Jitu",  saw,  it  is  related. 

Quotation,  either  direct  or  with  shifting  of  person  (indirect)  is 
expressed  by  the  free  quotative  mu',  which  appears  after,  rarely  in, 
the  quotation.     Thus  mu'  mu',  (he)  saw  (him),  (he)  said. 

There  is  no  imperative.  Commands  are  indicated  by  tone  ot 
voice.  The  tense  is  usually  future  ;  iva  of  the  negative  is  regularly 
omitted  ;  xa',  then,  often  follows  the  verb.  Thus,  a'  mu'ja  xa',  you 
I  see  then  ! 

Ta'  is  a  hortatory  element  which  precedes  first  person  verbs  in 
exhortations.  The  future  and  the  negative  without  ifrt  occur  as  in 
commands.     Thus  ta'   't  muj'a,  let  us  see. 


HARRINGTON]         TIIVA    LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS  3/ 

The  question  requires  formal  indication  unless  it  contains  some 
interrogative  pronoun  or  adverb.  Both  positive  and  negative  direct 
questions  are  introduced  by  xa^  or  pa,  xa"  being  the  more  com- 
mon. If  quoted  the  quotative  follows.  Ihus  xu  su  zva  mu" pji"  inu'' , 
will  (he)  not  see,  (he)  asked.  The  indirect  question  requires  two 
verb  clusters  ;  see  below. 

The  following  clusters  may  be  used  only  in  conjunction  with  con- 
plementary  clusters.     They  may  be  called  infinitive  forms. 

(i)  Real  infinitives  end  in  Ja'i.  Negation  must  be  expressed  by 
the  complementary  verb.  Thus  'dmduhitil  tifnu^ja'i,  I  want  to 
see  him. 

(2)  Indirect  question  infinitives  positive  end  inja  'i ;  negative  end 
in  mi"  'i.  They  must  be  preceded  by  fa.  Thus  itidl  f'la  'a"  fa 
mii^ja'i,  you  i  me  asked  whether  (he)  saw  (him). 

(3)  Unreal  infinitives  end  in  japua  'i.  Negation  must  be 
expressed  by  the  complementary  verb.  Thus  Jia" fa'a'a" fi'i 
mitjapfia'i,  it  is  a  pos.sibility  that  you  2  could  have  seen  them  3  +  . 

(4)  Purpose  infinitives  end  mjaki.  Negative  must  be  expressed 
by  the  complementary  verb. 

Compare  ki,  postfix  of  free  emphatic  personal  pronouns.  Thus 
^dntci^hfid    piimi^jaki,  I  am  going  in  order  to  see  them  2+. 

Verb  +  verb  compounding  also  assists  in  the  expression  of 
tense  and  mood  ;  see  below. 

What  we  term  the  Tiwa  passive  is  a  device  for  emphasizing  the 
subject.  The  subject,  definite  or  indefinite,  must  be  in  the  third 
person,  and  finds  no  prefixed  pronominal  expression.  The  noun 
subject  may  or  may  not  be  expressed  and  if  expressed  may  or  may 
not  be  compounded.  The  object,  alias  subject,  must  be  expressed 
by  a  prefixed  subject  pronoun.  The  noun  object  if  present  may  not 
be  compounded,  but  stands  outside  the  verb  cluster  and  has  its 
proper  termination  like  a  true  subject.  The  object  may  stand  in  the 
first,  second,  or  third  person.  The  various  verbs  form  the  passive 
by  postfixing  between  root  and  tense  postfix  if  present  the  various 
elements/io:,  ka,  ta,  la,  ma,  each  verb  employing  only  one  of  these 
elements.  Examples  of  the  passive  construction  are  :  With  defi- 
nite or  indefinite  subject  unexpressed  and  object  expressed  by 
second  person  singular  prefixed  subject  pronoun,  '«"  rmtja,  you    i 


38  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [s.  s.,  12,  1910 

were  seen  by  him,  her,  it,  them,  somebody,  or  something.  With 
definite  subject  expressed  by  compounded  noun  and  object  expressed 
by  second  person  singular  prefixed  subject  ^ronown^ a"  kbd  inn' ja, 
you  I  were  seen  by  a  bear.  With  definite  subject  expressed  by 
uncompounded  noun  and  object  expressed  by  second  person  singu- 
lar prefixed  subject  pronoun,  '«"  tnu"ja  kba  na,  you  i  were  seen  by 
a  bear.  With  definite  subject  expressed  by  compounded  noun  and 
object  expressed  by  second  person  singular  prefixed  subject  pro- 
noun and  by  uncompounded  noun,  sod  nd  na  'a'  koa  uiu^ja,  you  i,  a 
man,  were  seen  by  a  bear.  With  definite"  subject  expressed  by 
uncompounded  noun  and  object  expressed  by  second  person  singu- 
lar prefixed  subject  pronoun  and  by  uncompounded  noun,  sod  nd  na 
'a'ntu'ja   kddna,  you  i,  a  man,  were  seen  by  a  bear. 

Verb  -f-  verb  compounds  in  which  the  second  element  is  the 
root  piid,  happen,  become,  also  correspond  to  English  passives  ;  see 
below. 

Simple  and  composite  postfixes  describe  position,  direction,  limit, 
cause,  result  and  other  adverbial  notions  with  an  exactness  totally 
foreign  to  English  expression.  These  postfixes  are  comparable 
to  and  in  some  instances  identical  with  postfixes  accompanying 
noun  roots.  Examples  are  :  piga",  towards  in  a  downward  di- 
rection away  from  the  speaker  ;  -nd"  na,  down  there  within  a  hollow 
object ;  -;r«"  na",  in  an  upward  direction  away  from  the  speaker  as 
far  as. 

Tiwa  expresses  a  large  percentage  of  verbal  conceptions  by 
verb  -f-  verb  compounds.  The  meaning  of  the  compound  is  usually 
distinct  and  the  compound  is  felt  as  a  simple  verb  as  a  result  of  long 
usage.  Two,  three,  or  even  four  verb  roots  may  be  compounded. 
The  last  member  frequently  denotes  the  chief  or  causal  activity,  yet 
in  some  compounds  it  assumes  an  almost  affixal  function.  To  this 
last  member  the  first  or  earlier  members  may  stand  in  most  diverse 
relation.  Not  infrequently  they  express  attendant,  purpose,  or 
result  activity.  Frequent  as  last  members  are  the  motion  verbs 
nid",  go,  'a",  come  ;  the  position  verbs  k'a,  lie  ;  '«",  sit,  k'i  stand,  yw, 
move  about  in  or  at  a  place ;  and  the  verb  pfid,  happen,  become. 
Examples  are :  tod,  he  separated,  pulled  off,  picked  up  -f-  md",  he 
went  =  tod  md",  he  fetched ;  iTod  la",  he  shook  his  arms  or  flapped  his 


HARRINGTON]     '    T/WA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OE   TAOS  39 

wings  +  ;//«",  he  went  =  fMlmd",  he  flew  ;  'tt",  he  said  +  ntii,  he 
went  =  'ti'^  md",  "  he  up  and  said  ;  "  xu  ma",  he  was  taken  care  of 
-\- fi'id,  he  heca.me  =xti  mpfitl,  he  became  taken  care  of;  x^lcltt, 
hook  with  horns -\-'dzvita,  I  was  tossed  =  'a x" I diiwi ta,  I  was 
hooked  and  tossed. 

What  may  be  termed  derivative  verbs  are  formed  by  adding  to 
verb  roots  certain  elements  which  fundamentally  modify  the  root 
meaning,  the  combination  behaving  as  a  verb  +  verb  compound.  The 
relation  of  the  derivative  verb  to  the  verb  +  verb  compound,  is  per- 
haps analogous  to  that  which  the  noun  +  noun  compound,  the  last 
member  of  which  is  of  adjectival  force,  bears  to  the  noun  componund. 
Thus  m7i",  see,  may  not  only  be  connected  with  exceedingly  nu- 
merous pronoun  elements,  tense,  mood,  and  voice  elements,  posi- 
tional, directional,  limital,  causal,  and  resultal  elements  and  combina- 
tions of  such  elements,  but  may  originate  a  number  of  verbs  of 
derivative  meaning  each  one  of  which  permits  as  many  forms  as  does 
the  simple  root  i/m".  Thus  mu" ;««",  seem  ;  tnu'Wud"  show.  The 
derivative  verb  may  act  as  a  member  of  verb  -|-  verb  compounds. 
Thus  xtt,  care  for ;  derivative  verb  xu  ma",  be  taken  care  of ;  />ua, 
become ;  xu  mpsa,  (he)  became  taken  care  of  J/rt"  of  derivative 
verbs  is  probably  the  same  as  the  tense  postfix  ;««",  denoting  per- 
manent state  or  continuous  activity.  Unanalyzed  verb  roots  of  two 
or  more  syllables  may  prove  to  be  derivative  or  compounded  verbs. 

T/te  Interjection 

Taos  speech  is  rich  in  a  class  of  verb  roots  which  express  assent, 
negation,  various  states  of  emotion,  volition,  and  the  like.  These 
differ  from  other  verb  roots  in  that  they  take  no  affixes,  but  in  their 
affixless  form  have  the  same  syntactic  usage  as  verb  clusters.  Thus 
ha"  mu"  xa",  yes  quotative  then,  means  she  said  that  she  was  willing 
to  do  so.     Examples  are  : 

ha",  yes,  all  right,  also  said  by  a  listener  during  a  narration  to 
show  interest. 

na '«,  no 

'a,  expression  of  surprise 

'a",  expression  of  pain 

'a"  n  ta,  expression  of  admiration 


4°  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

'u  xa",  expression  of  scorn  or  ridicule, 

(°a  'a  exp  ession  of  gratitude 

w«  da",  b    gone  far  from  here  ! 

saa,  or  si'i,  expression  of  desire  for  attention. 

Greeting,  Swearing,  Men's  and  Women' s  Language 
The  common  greeting  is  Jau,  said  on  all  occasions.  Jafi  may  be 
translated  by  hello,  how  do  you  do,  good  bye.  The  following 
forms  are  also  much  used  :  sing,  'a"  k'u  wa  nia",  dual  ma"  n  k'u  wa  ma", 
3+plu.  ma"  k'u  wa  ma",  you  live  well,  progressive  tense  of  k'u, 
thrive,  +  wa,  be  alive,  live.  The  reply  is  the  same,  always  using  of 
course  the  proper  number.  Good  bye  may  be  rendered  by  k'u  ka- 
ma",  which  seems  also  to  contain  the  element /&'?<.  Pm  'u,  "friend," 
is  a  much  employed  salutation. 

The  nearest  approach  to  our  swearing  is  such  an  expression  as 
na"  wa  xa  n  na  nd,  disgust,  or  ta  'a  tu  ti,  thou  male  ancestor. 

A  difference  between  men's  and  women's  language  is  noted  in 
the  expression  :  What  do  you  want?  Men  say  hai  ?  Women  say 
hi'i? 

Text 

An  incompletely  analyzed  portion  of  an  animal  story  with 
interlinear  translation  and  vocabulary  follows.  The  alphabetic 
order  of  the  vocabulary  is  :  ',  'a,  'a",  'a,  'a",  'a,  'a",  b,  d,  g,  h,  'i,  'i°, 
j,  k,  k',  k°,  k",  1, },  m,  n,  '6,  p,  p',  p°,  s,  t,  t',  t\  f,  t",    u,  "u",  w,  x, 


X". 

KalhQ'u  hat    Pa"}ia'u 
Old  She-Wolf  and  Old  She-Deer 

'A"nna°e'iajawa'i 
with  Reference  to  Them  2  It  Is  Told 

Xa"  ma^n  kaUiu'u  wi  t°6  m  'a°m 'u  p'id  1  ga° 

Then     in  earlier  time     Old  She- Wolf    she  narratival  lived    her  2-|-  little  ones  with 

haba        pa°nu'u  wi  t°6  m  'a"!!! 'u  p'ialga".       Hu         xu 

and        Old  She-Deer      she  narratival  lived        her  2 1-  little  ones  with.       So        then 

ma°  ka  1  liii  'u  wi  wa  n  hiia  pa°  riti  'ujia 

after  a  while      Old  She- Wolf       she  narratival  approached       the  old  she-deer 

t°5  n  t°a.  Hu       xu  :  hi  'a°  t'a  ht'ia  mu"       xa" 

she  lived  where.  So        then:       "What      you  1  are  doing  ?"     quotative     then 

wi  '11"  ma. 
she  (the  wolf)  narratival  said  to  her  (the  deer). 


HARRINGTON]         TIIVA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS  4 1 

Hi  'awat'ama".       Jadu      'at°6m     'a  na°  m 'up°ia  Iga". 

"  Anything         I  am  not  doing.         Here  I  live        my  2+  little  ones  with." 

Ta°         t"uaha         niu°  'it°6ja  mu°       xa°      kalliu'u 

Hortatory      together       quotative      they  3-f  live  shall     quotative     then     Old  She-Wolf 

wi  tu°  hua.  Ha"         mu°         xa".         Hu      xu         t°6  ji 

she  narratival  said.  Yes       quotative       then.  So       then       day  every 

'a°nnilat°6ama°hua.  Hu        xu 

they  2  quotative  wood  pull  off  or  pick  up  went.  So         then 

'  a°  n  la  t°6a  ma"  na°  '  u        ha  la 

they  2  wood  pull  off  or  pick  up  went         when,         almost 

wi  xua  ka  hiia. 
she  (the  wolf)  narratival  was  biting  her  (the  deer).' 

Hu     xu       pa°  liu  'u  na       hu  'i  wi  'u  'u"  ma°  hua  : 

So      then      the  old  she-deer      thus      them  2+  she  narratival  little  ones  tell  went : 

Juhi  kalliu'u  hat  '  a  wi  hu  ta  ha" . 

"Perhaps     (by)  Old-She-Wolf    very  soon     1  narratival  killed  be  shall  soon. 

Hu     XU       'aixa°n  hi  ja  'uma°na°  m  tuakaMa" 

So     then  incase  perhaps        hither    them   2-|- inanimate  she   for  you  2-f 

pieces  of  meat  brings 

n,    ma°nxak'iii      k  fi  li  li  m  16  ja  ma",  'aita°n 

when,  you  2  roast  put     when  it  in  a  state  of  making  a  s-s-s  sound  sizzle  goes,  in  that  case 

XU  ina°nnak'alpu°.  Haba  'a°m'uwa'in 

then  you  2  not  eat  shall.  And  (by)  her  2+  little  ones 

hi 'an  k  ma°n  tok'uju 'i 

by  (having  done)  what  then  you  2  2  +  spots  are  pretty  having 

ma''nt"'ia'a''la   n,         ka-nkana  'a°nk6ak"il  ta  ka  xu 

you  2  asked  are   when,  '(By)  our  2  mother  we  2  ( in )  smoke  shut  down  in  were  because 

hu  '  a°  n  to  k'  u  ju  ma"  mu°     ma°  pa°  n  '  u°  ma°  ja. 

thus  we  2  (as  regards)  2 -[-spots  pretty  are  permanently,'    quotative     you  2  them  2  -(-  say 

go  shall. 

Hu     xu    'a°wa°n  huta  'imau        xu      raa'pa"  n  k°i  1  taja. 

So     then        they         in  the  same  manner    they  3-|-wish    then       you  2  them  3 -j- shut 

down  in  will. 

Hu'an    ma°nu     ma°  n  x°ia  p  ma"  ja  wa  k  ta'alulin^ 

So  (doing)       after  you  2  run  go  shall     to  that  far  place  down  the  male  ancestors 

'i'a"naga°.  Hu    xu         nia°  n  su  xu  m  pua  ja. 

they  3  +  sit  or  stay  in  where  down  where.       So   then    you  2  will  cared  for  become  will" 


'  In  play. 

'  It  is  believed  that  the  ancestors  and  unborn  progeny  of  deer  are  kept  underground 
in  a  lake  or  kiva  situated  far  northwest  of  Taos  whence  they  are  occasionally  driven  forth 
for  the  benefit  of  the  Indians. 


42  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

Vocabulary 

'a,  in  ta'aluli,  male  ancestor. 

'a,  in  hi'ana",  having  done  something,  and  hii'ana",  so  doing. 

'ai,  in  'ai  ta°na°,  in  that  case,  'ai  xa°  na°,  in  case. 

'ai  ta°  n,  see  'ai  ta"  na° 

'ai  ta°  na",  conjunction,  in  that  case. 

'ai  xa°  n,  see  'ai  xa°  na". 

'  5.1  xa"  na°  conjunction,  in  case. 

'a°,  first  and  third  person  dual  pronoun  element  in  'a''na°,  we  2, 
they  2. 

'a°,  second  person  sing,  prefixed  subject  pronoun,  you  i. 

'a",  third  person  pronoun  element  in  'a°ma°,  his,  her,  or  its,  2+  ani- 
mate, and  'a"wa°na",  he,  she,  it,  they. 

'a",  in  t"ia'a°,  ask. 

'a°m,  see  'a''ma°. 

'a°ma'',  third  person  sing.  2+  animate  prefixed  possessive  pronoun, 
his,  her,  or  its,  2  +  animate. 

'a''n,  see  'a"  na° 

'a°  na°,  first  and  third  person  dual  prefixed  subject  pronoun,  we  2, 
they  2. 

'a°wa°n,  see  'a''wa"na°. 

'a"wa°na°,  third  person  sing.,  dual,  and  plu.  free  emphatic  personal 
pronoun,  he,  she,  it,  they. 

'a",  verb,  sit,  stay,  be. 

'a,  first  person  sing,  prefixed  subject  pronoun,  I. 

'd,  first  person  sing,   pronoun  element  in  'ana"  ma",  my  2-|-  animate. 

'ana"m,  see,  'ana" ma". 

'ana"  ma",  first  person  singular  2+  animate  prefixed  possessive  pro- 
noun, my  2  4-  animate. 

'i,  first  and  third  person  3+  plural  prefixed  subject  pronoun,  we  3+, 
they  3  +  . 

'i,  prefixed  subject  -f  object  pronoun,  he,  she,  or  it,  them  2  +  . 

'i,  postfix  denoting  possession  or  inherent  quality,  in  ma"  n  t5  k'u  ju'i, 
you  2  2  +  spots  are  pretty  having ;  often  preceded  by  wa,  as  in 
'a"  m  'u  wa  'i  na",  her  (own)  2  +  little  ones. 

'u,  noun,  smallness,  little  one,  little  thing;  compounded  it  acts  as  a 
"diminutive"  expressing  smallness,  prettiness,  dearness,  oldness.  With 
terminations  4  b,  sing,  'u  'una,  plu.  'u'uniima". 

'u,  third  person  2  +  plu.  inanimate  pronoun  element  in  the  referen- 
tial pronoun  'uma"na"  ma",  them  2+  inanimate  he,  she,  or  it,  for  you  3. 


HARRINGTON]         TIWA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF  TAOS  43 

'u,  in  na"  'u,  when. 

'u  ma°  na°  m,  see  'u  ma°  na°  ma°. 

'unia"na°ma°,  composite  referential  pronoun,  then  2+  inanimate 
he,  she,  or  it,  for  you  2. 

'u",  verb,  say,  tell. 

ba,  in  ha  ba,  but. 

ba°,  in  x°iaba°,  run. 

da°,  in  ha  da",  enough,  and  ja  da",  here. 

ga°,  directional  and  positional  postfix,  down  (to)  where. 

ga",    apparently  without  the    meaning  "down"  in  p°ial  ga°,  with. 

ha,   in  ha  ba,  but,  ha  da",  enough,  and  ha  la,  almost. 

ha,  in  f'uaha,  together. 

haba,  conjunction,  but,  also,  and. 

ha  da",  adverb  and  conjunction,  enough,  already,  soon,  and  now,  and 
then,  and  also,  and. 

ha  la,  adverb,  almost,  less,  least. 

ha  t,  see  ha  da". 

ha",  interjection,  yes. 

ha",  tense  postfix  denoting  immediate  futurity. 

hi,  free  indefinite  pronoun,  anything,  something,  what,  perhaps.  It 
also  occurs  in  hi  ana",  by  having  done  what,  and  juhi,  maybe. 

hi  'an,  see  hi  'ana". 

hi 'ana",  free  indefinite  pronoun,  by  having  done  something,  by 
having  done  what,  why,  how. 

hu,  adverb,  thus,  so,  and  so. 

hu,  verb,  kill. 

hu  'an,  see  hu  'ana". 

hu  'ana",  adverb,  so  doing. 

hua,  tense  suffix  denoting  progressive  or  continued  activity ;  the 
corresponding  negative  postfix  is  ma". 

hu  ta,  adverb,  in  the  same  manner  (hu,  thus  +  ta,  down  in). 

ja,  adverb,  hither  ;  also  in  ja  da",  here. 

ja,  a  future,  imperative  and,  passive  verb  postfix. 

ja,  in  15  ja,  make  a  sizzling  sound. 

ja  da",  adverb,  here. 

ja  du,  see  ja  da". 

ji,  distributive  postfix  meaning  every,  as  in  t°6  ji,  every  day. 

ju,  adverb,  thus,  in  ju  hi,  perhaps. 

ju,  in  k'uju,  be  pretty. 

juhi,  adverb,  perhaps  (ju,  thus  +  hi,  something,  perhaps). 


44  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

k,  see  ga"  and  xa°. 
ka,  in  ka  la°,  wolf. 

ka,  noun,  mother;  with  terminations  4  a,  sing,  kana,  plu.  kanama"; 
ka,  a  passive  verb  postfix, 
ka,  in  xuaka,  bite. 

kala°,  noun,  wolf;  with  terminations  4  c,  sing,  kalana,  plu. 
ka  1  a  na  ma". 

kalHu'u,  noun  compound,  little,  pretty,  nice  or  old  wolf  female; 
used  as  a  proper  name,  hence  without  termination. 

ka°,  first  person  dual  pronoun  element  in  ka°  na°,  of  us  2. 

ka".  In  ka"  la",  bring. 

ka"la°,  verb,  bring. 

ka"  n,  see  ka''  na". 

ka°  na°,  first  person  dual  sing,  animate  prefixed  possessive  pronoun, 
of  us  2. 

koa,  noun,  smoke;  with  terminations  i  b,  sing.  k5a'ana,  particle 
or  portion  of  smoke,  plu.  koa  'ana,  smoke. 

k'a,  in  k'ala",  eat. 

k'ala",  verb,  eat. 

k'u,  in  k'uju,  be  pretty. 

k'ui,  verb,  place,  put. 

k'uju,  verb,  be  pretty. 

k''i,  in  ki  la",  shut  up. 

k°i  1,  see  k"i  la". 

k"i  la",  verb,  shut  up,  enclose. 

1,  see  la". 

la,  in  ha  la,  almost. 

la,  a  passive  verb  postfix. 

la",  in  kala",  wolf. 

la",  in  p°ia  1  ga",  with. 

la",  the  second  syllable  of  several  verb  roots. 

la,  noun,  wood  ;  with  terminations  1  a,  sing.  lana,  a  piece  ol  wood, 
plu.  fa  na,  wood. 

li,  in  ta  'atuli,  male  ancestor. 

Ii,.in  t'i  X\  li,  make  a  s-s-s  sound. 

liu,  noun,  female,  woman,  wife ;  with  terminations  3  b,  sing. 
Jtiu'una,  plu.  liu 'una". 

Id,  in  to  ja. 

16  ja,  verb,  make  a  sizzling  sound,  sizzle,  boil. 

lu,  in  ta  'a  lu  fi,  male  ancestor. 


HARRINGTON]         TIIVA   LANGUAGE,    DIALECT  OF   TAOS  45 

m,  see  ma°. 

ma,  an  aorist  tense  postfix. 

maii,  verb,  wish,  want,  love. 

ma°,  second  person  dual  pronoun  element  in  ma"  na",  you  2,  ma"  pa" 
na°,  you  2  them  3+  ,  'u ;««"  nat  ma",  them  2+  inanimate  he,  she,  or  it, 
for  you  2. 

ma",  perhaps  of  plural  force  in  'an"ma,  my  2  +  animate,  'a"  ma", 
her  2+  animate,  '  u  ma"  na"  wa",  them  2+  inanimate  he,  she,  or  it,  for 
you  2; 

ma°,  a  verb  postfix  denoting  permanence  of  state  or  continuity  of  ac- 
tivity ;  it  also  forms  derivative  verbs,  as  mu",  see,  mu°  ma",  be  seen, 
appear,  seem ;  xu,  care  for,  xu  ma",  be  taken  care  of 

ma°  n,  see  mat  na". 

ma"  na",  second  person  dual  prefixed  subject  pronoun,  you  2. 

ma"  pa"  n,  see  ma"  pa"  na". 

ma"  pa"  na",  prefixed  subject  +  object  pronoun,  you  2  them  2. 

ma",  verb,  go  ;  often  used  with  almost  formative  force. 

ma",  tense  postfix  denoting  progressive  or  continued  activity  used 
with  the  negative ;  the  corresponding  positive  postfix  is  hua ;  perhaps 
identical  in  origin  with  ma",  go. 

ma",  in  ma"  na",  earlier,  later. 

ma"  n,  see  ma"  na". 

ma''na",  adverb,  denotes  difference  in  time,  earlier,  later,  before, 
after,  ago,  from  now,  a  little  while  ago,  after  a  while. 

ma"  nu",  see  ma°  na". 

mu",  adverb,  quotative  element  following  direct  and  indirect  quota- 
tions; it  serves  the  same  purpose  as  English  quotation  marks  or  "said  he." 

n,  see  na". 

n,  by  progressive  assimilation  for  m  in  t°o  n  t°a ;  see  m. 

na,  noun  termination  in  4  a,  sing,  ka  na,  mother,  and  4  b,  sing, 
pa" fill  'una,  old  she-wolf. 

na,  locative  postfix  used  with  sing,  nouns  and  with  verbs,  in,  in 
there,  in  where. 

na,  by  retrogressive  assimilation  for  wa  in  ma"  n  na  ka  1  pu",  you  2 
not  eat  shall. 

naga",  composite  locative  postfix  used  with  nouns  or  verbs,  in  + 
down,  down  in  there,  down  in  where  (na,  in  -f  ga",  down). 

na",  noun  termination  in  3  a,  plu.  ta  'alu  li  na",  male  ancestors ; 
also  used  as  noun  plural  sign  with  possessive  pre-  and  postfixes  in 
'a"  m  'u  wa  'i  na",  her  2+  little  ones. 


46  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  s.,  12,  1910 

na",  prefixed  third  person  subject  pronoun  indefinite,  it,  they 
(indefinite),  as  in  na"t"iaja,  it  is  said,  or  they  (indefinite)  say. 

na",  in  the  pronouns  'a°wa°na°,  he,  she,  it,  they,  ka°na",  of  us  2 
sing.,  ma"na'',  you  2,  ma°  pa°  na°,  you  2  them  2  animate,  'u  ma°  na°  ma°, 
them  2+  inanimate  he,  she,  or  it,  for  you  2. 

na",  adverb  or  conjunction,  then,  when;  also  in  na°'u,  when, 
'ii  ta°  na",  in  that  case,  'ai  xa°  na",  in  case,  hi  'a  na°,  by  having  done  some- 
thing then,  hu'ana",  so  doing  then,  and  ma°  na",  earlier,  later. 

na",  in  wa  na",  approach. 

na"  'u,  adverb  or  conjunction,  when. 

ni,  by  retrogressive  assimilation  for  wi  in  'a"n  nila t°64 ma" hui,  they 
2  quotative  wood  pull  off  or  pick  up  went. 

nu,  see  na". 

p,  see  ba". 

pa",  noun,  deer  ;  with  te  minations  4  a,  sing,  pa"  na,  plu.  pa"  na  ma". 

pa",  third  person  2  +  plu.  pronoun  element  in  ma"  pa"  na",  you  2 
them  2  animate. 

pa"Iiu'u,  noun  compound,  little,  pretty,  nice,  or  old  wolf  female; 
used  as  a  proper  name,  hence  without  termination  ;  with  terminations  4 
b,  sing.  pa"Iiu 'u'una,  plu.  pa"nu 'u 'u  nama°. 

piia,  verb,  happen,  become. 

pu",  future  and  imperative  verb  postfix  used  with  the  negative ;  the 
corresponding  postive  postfix  is  ja. 

p°ia,  in  pTa  1  ga°. 

p°ia.  1  ga",  noun  postfix  denoting  association  or  accompaniment,  with. 

su,  tense  prefix  denoting  definite  future  time,  placed  after  the  prefixed 
pronoun  and  narratival  element. 

t,  see  da". 

ta,  in  ta'aluli,  male  ancestor. 

ta,  locative  postfix  used  with  sing,  nouns  and  with  verbs,  down  in, 
down  at ;  it  occurs  in  hu  ta,  in  the  same  manner,  and  'a"  n  k6ak"i  1  ta  ka 
we  2  (in)  smoke  shut  down  in  were. 

ta,  a  passive  verb  postfix. 

ta'alufi,  noun,  father's  or  mother's  father  or  more  remote  male 
ancestor ;  with  terminations  3b,  sing,  ta  'a  lu  li  'i  na,  3a,  plu.  ta  'a  tu  \\  na°. 

ta",  hortatory  modal  element  preceding  the  future  of  verbs. 

ta",  in  'ai  tii"  na",  in  that  case. 

to,  noun,  spot;  with  terminations  i  b,  sing,  to'ona,  plu.  to '6  na. 

tua,  noun,  meat ;  with  terminations  i  a,  sing,  tui  na,  morsel  of  meat, 
plu.  tua  na,  meat. 


HARRINGTON]         TIIVA   LANGUAGE,   DIALECT    OF   TAOS  47 

tu°,  verb,  say. 

t'a,  verb,  do. 

t°a,  locative  postfix  used  with  sing,  nouns  and  with  verbs,  in,  at, 
there,  where. 

t°6,  noun,  day ;  with  terminations  i  a,  sing.  t°o  na,  plu.  fo  na. 

t°6,  verb,  live  in  a  house,  dwell,  live  ;  compare  na°  fo,  house. 

t°6a,  verb,  separate,  pull  off,  pick  up. 

t°6ji,  noun  with  distributive  postfix,  every  day. 

t'i,  in  t'ilili,  make  a  s-s-s  sound,  dissimilated  from  the  two  following 
syllables. 

t'ilifi,  verb,  make  a  s-s-s  sound  (onomatope). 

t'i  li  li  ma",  derivative  verb,  be  in  a  state  of  making  a  s-s-s  sound, 
sizzle. 

t"ia,  verb,  say,  tell. 

t"'ia,  'a°,  verb,  ask. 

t"ua,  in  fMha,  together. 

f'uaha,  adverb,  together. 

wa,  noun  postfix  denoting  posssession. 

wa,  verb  prefix  denoting  negation  placed  before  the  root  and  after 
the  prefixed  pronoun  and  tense  prefix,  and  requiring  peculiar  tense  post- 
fixes. 

wa,  in  wa  na°,  approach. 

wan,  see  wana". 

wana°,  verb,  approach. 

wa°,  in  a°  wa°  na°,  he,  she,  it,  they. 

wa,  free  demonstrative  pronoun  element  denoting  greater  remoteness. 

wa  ga°,  adverb,  to  that  far  place  down. 

wa  k,  see  wa  ga°. 

wi,  narratival  modal  element  indicating  that  the  statement  does  not 
originate  with  the  speaker,  placed  before  the  root  and  the  negative  and 
tense  prefix  and  after  the  prefixed  pronoun. 

xa,  verb,  roast. 

xa°,  adverb  and  conjunction  then,  when,  whenever,  since,  because, 
therefore,  you  know. 

xa°,  in  'ai  xa"  na",  in  case. 

xu,  see  xa°. 

xu,  verb,  care  for. 

xua,  in  xua  ka,  bite. 

xiiaka,  verb,  bite. 

xu  ma°,  derivative  verb,  be  taken  care  of 


48  AMERICAN  ANTHROPOLOGIST  [n.  %.,  12,  1910 

x°ia,  in  x°Ia  ba°,  run. 
x°ia  ba",  verb,  run. 
x°ia  p,  see  x°ia  ba". 

SUMMARY 
Tiwa  is  a  moderately  polysynthetic  language  of  the  same 
general  type  as  Ute  or  Nahua.  Salient  features  are :  phonetic 
system  characterized  by  clear  and  not  violent  sounds  with  absence 
of  not  etymologically  synthetic  consonant  groups  ;  preponderance  of 
one  syllabled  root  and  affix  elements  ;  notable  lack  of  the  processes  of 
internal  change  in  elements  and  unimportance  of  reduplication  ; 
denoting  of  root  modification  both  by  prefixation  and  postfixation, 
the  latter  process  perhaps  predominating  ;  remarkable  development 
of  root  compounding,  the  compound  forming  with  its  affixes  a 
single  cluster  ;  abundant  formal  expression  of  position,  direction, 
and  relation,  but  suppression  of  shape,  quantity,  and  quality  notions  ; 
incomplete  and  imperfect  expression  of  animate  and  inanimate 
gender,  of  singular,  dual  and  plural  number,  of  subjective,  objective, 
and  referential  case  accomplished  chiefly  by  pronouns  and  never  by 
case-affixes,  of  first,  second,  and  third  person,  and  of  a  great  variety 
of  tense  and  mood  ideas  ;  persistent  emphasis  of  the  object  by  means 
of  compounding  or  passive  construction  ;  and  elaborate  development 
of  syntax  by  means  of  conjunctive  elements.  Affinities  of  Tanoan 
with  Nahuatlan,  Kiowan,  and  Keresan  will  be  discussed  in  a  pre- 
liminary way  in  a  separate  paper. 

School  of  American  Arch.«ology, 
Sante  Ft,  New  Mexico. 


